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ANATOMY, 
PHYSIOLOaY,  AND  HYGIENE: 


FOR  THE  USB   OP 


COLLEGES,  SCHOOLS,  AND  GENERAL  READERS. 


BY 


JEROME  ^ALKER,  M.D., 

Leotubeb  upon  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  at  the  Central  School, 
Brooklyn,  and  upon  Diseases  of  Children,  at  the  Long  Island  College 
Hospital;  Physician  to  the  Brooklyn  Society  for  the  Prevention 
op  Cruelty  to  Children;  Consulting  Physician  to  the  Keith 
Private  Home  for  Nervous  Diseases  ;    and  Senior  Physi- 
cian to  the  Sea-Side  Home  for  Children, 
Coney  Island. 


With  Original  and  Carefully  Selected  Illustrations. 


Ni;WTOFK: 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1883,  by 

A.  LOVELL  &   CO., 
in  the  office  of  tlie  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


<y,,S,  Cushing  cf  Co.,   Printers,  115  High  Street',   ffaitoff. 


PEEFAOE. 


r  I IHE  following  pages  are  based  upon  the  author's  lectures  in  the 
-^  public  schools  of  Brooklyn  for  the  last  eight  years.  Both  as  a 
physician  in  active  practice  and  as  a  teacher,  he  has  been  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  truthful  anatomical  pictures  as  educators ;  and 
of  the  folly,  on  the  one  hand,  of  omitting  from  our  text-books  important 
points  ;  or,  on  the  other,  of  overloading  the  mind  with  a  mass  of  tech- 
nical material,  which  is  of  little  value-  to  the  ordinary  student.  For 
that  matter,  it  is  assumed  throughout  the  work  that  the  time  has  gone 
by  when  students  are  to  be  compelled  to  study  the  natural  sciences 
by  committing  to  memory  page  after  page  of  text-books.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  book  the  active  co-operation  of  men  distinguished 
in  special  lines  of  work  has  been  obtained.  The  kind  of  type  and 
the  color  of  the  paper  were  selected  under  the  advice  of  the  well- 
known  physician  and  oculist.  Dr.  C.  R.  Agnew,  of  New  York. 
Dr.  L.  C.  Gray,  Professor  of  Mental  and  Nervous  Diseases  in  the 
New  York  Polyclinic  Medical  School,  and  Dr.  J.  C.  Shaw,  Superinten- 
dent of  the  King's  County  Insane  Asylum,  have  carefully  reviewed 
the  manuscript  and  proof  of  the  chapters  on  the  Nervous  System. 
In  like  manner,  Dr.  A.  Mathewson,  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  St.  John's 
Hospital,  and  the  Brooklyn  Eye  and  Ear  Hospital,  etc.,  has  reviewed 
the  chapters  on  Sight  and  Hearing.  Dr.  E.  H.  Bartley,  Analytical 
Chemist  to  the  Department  of  Health  of  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  and 
Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  the  Long  Island  College  Hospital,  has 
examined  that  portion  of  Chapter  X.  which  relates  to  water;  Dr.  T. 
R.  French,  Consulting  Laryngoscopic  Surgeon  to  St.  Mary's  Hospital, 
etc.,  and  Dr.  S.  Sherwell,  Physician  to  the  Throat  Department  of  the 
Brooklyn  Eve  and  Ear  Hospital,  have  reviewed  the  manuscript  and 
proof  of  the  qi^^ft^  dn  the  Voice ;  and  Dr.  J.  H.  H.  Burge,  Surgeon 


IV  PREFACE. 

to  the  Long  Island  Hospital,  has  reviewed  the  manuscript  and  proof 
of  the  chapter  on  Emergencies.  In  addition  to  this  public  recogni- 
tion of  the  services  of  the  above-named  gentlemen,  thanks  are  also 
due  to  Dr.  A.  N.  Bell,  the  well-known  editor  of  The  Sanitarian,  for 
the  use  of  his  choice  library  of  sanitary  works,  and  for  many  valu- 
able suggestions  and  criticisms ;  also  to  Dr.  J.  H.  Hunt,  for  assistance 
in  microscopic  work,  and  to  Dr.  B.  F.  Westbrook,  Chief  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Throat  and  Chest  of  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Brooklyn,  for 
an  original  illustration  and  for  valuable  suggestions. 

The  book  is  believed  to  be  a  fair  exponent  of  present  physiological 
and  hygienic  knowledge.  Throughout  its  pages  the  lessons  of  moder- 
ation are  taught  in  connection  with  the  use  of  each  part  of  the 
body.  The  subjects  of  food,  and  of  the  relations  of  the  skin  to 
the  various  parts  of  the  body  and  to  health,  are  more  thoroughly 
treated  of  than  is  ordinarily  the  case  in  such  works.  In  regard  to 
Stimulants  and  Narcotics,  the  mahi  facts  have  been  given.  Care  has 
been  exerted  to  have  all  chapters  reliable,  not  even  omitting  the  one 
on  Emergencies,  which  is  often  slighted  in  our  text-books,  thereby 
causing  the  directions  given  for  the  relief  of  the  injured  too  frequently 
to  be  misleading.  Figures  15,  21,  23,  24,  25,  32,  41,  44,  45,  47,  54, 
64,  and  66,  were  designed  by  the  author,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
illustrations  are  from  Sappey's  Descriptive  Anatomy  and  other  reliable 
sources,  and  are  in  the  main  new  to  text-books  of  this  kind.  It  will 
be  well  for  the  teacher  to  see  that  the  more  important  points  stated 
in  the  Introduction,  especially  those  relating  to  technical  terms  and 
certain  processes,  are  comprehended  by  the  pupil  before  entering  upon 

the  study  of  the  text. 

J.  W. 
Brooklyn,  May  7,  1884. 


TABLE  OF  OOITTENTS. 

CHAPTER.  -  PAGE. 

Introduction vii 

I.   Bones  and  Joints 1 

11.   The  Skeleton 11 

III.  Muscles  and  Fat 19 

IV.  Muscular  Exercise 34 

V.    The  Skin 43 

YI.   Bathing 54 

VII.   Clothing 62 

VIII.   Digestion.  —  The  Conversion  of  Food  into  Tissues  76 

IX.   Food.  —  Dietetics 104 

X.   Foods.  —  Alcoholic  Stimulants       ....  128 

XI.   The  Circulation.  —  Blood.  —  Lymph      .         .         .  153 

XII.   Respiration.  —  Animal  Heat 180 

XIII.  Air.  —  Disinfection.  —  Light 200 

XIV.  The  Nervous  System 223 

XV.   Nervous  System,  continued.  —  Nerve  Force    .        .  247 

XVI.    Sensations.  —  The    Senses  :    Touch,    Taste,    and 

Smell 257 

XVII.    Sight 270 

XVIII.   Hearing 292 

XIX.   The  Voice 304 

XX.   Emergencies 319 

Appendix  Notes 353 

Referred  to  in  the  text  by  letters  (a)  (&),  and  meant  to  amplify, 
mainly  in  the  language  of  others,  important  subjects  treated  o| 
in  the  various  chapters. 


IS-TEODUOTIOISr. 


1.  The  stud}^  now  to  be  pursued  is  primarily  that  of  Health. 
It  includes  a  consideration  of  Human  Physiology^  or  the  science 
which  teaches  us  how,  in  a  physical  point  of  view,  "we  live, 
and  move,  and  have  our  being  " ;  and  under  that  head,  of  Human 
Anatomy^  or  the  description  of  the  location  and  structure  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  human  body ;  and  also  of  Hygiene,  that 
is,  the  science  and  art  of  the  preservation  of  health.^  Wherever 
people  have  correct  ideas  as  to  the  requirements  of  health,  and 
make  intelligent  efforts  to  obey  health  laws,  sickness  is  com- 
paratively rare,  and  the  very  best  work,  both  physical  and 
mental,  is  accomplished.  Not  only  does  the  individual  help 
himself  to  progress  and  also  those  about  him,  but  the  community 
at  large  is  benefitted,  so  that  "public  health  is  public  wealth." 

2.  The  human  body,  like  that  of  the  lower  animals,  begins 
in  a  microscopic  cell,  and  passes  through  the  various  stages 
of  birth,  growth,  development,  decline,  and  death.     The  capa- 

1  The  word  Anatomy  is  derived  from  the  Greek  (auaTo/j.-xi) ,  and  signifies  the 
act  of  cutting  up,  or  dissection.  Anatomical  knowledge  has  been  obtained  by 
the  dissection  of  bodies  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  study  of  the  general 
appearance  and  mutual  relations  of  the  bones,  muscles,  nerves,  blood-vessels, 
and  other  parts,  is  sometimes  called  "  general "  or  **  gross  anatomy,^-'  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  study,  by  means  of  the  microscope,  of  "  minute  anatomy," 
i.e.,  Histology. 

The  word  Physiology  is  derived  from  the  Greek  {(pvaLoXoyia),  and  signifies 
literally  a  talk  about  Nature.  It  is  now  confined  to  a  description  of  "the 
phenomena  the  aggregate  of  which  constitutes  life."  Physiological  knowledge 
has  been  obtained  by  closely  observing  the  actions  of  the  various  parts  of 
living  bodies  in  a  state  of  health,  and  by  means  of  operations  upon  living 
animals,  that  is,  vivisection. 

The  word  Hygiene,  from  a  Greek  word  (vyieia),  health,  refers  particularly 
to  the  health  of  man,  both  individually  and  in  relation  to  the  community. 
The  application  of  health  laws  to  individuals  is  known  as  "  individual  hygiene," 
and  to  communities  as  "  public  hygiene,"  sanitation,  or  * '  preventive  medicine." 


Vlll  INTKODUCTION. 

city  for  development  we  possess,  especially  of  the  brain,  is  a 
marked  distinction  between  man  and  other  living  organisms. 
In  nothing  do  they  all  resemble  each  other  so  much  as  in  their 
birth,  decline,  and  death.  There  is  in  ever}^  portion  of  our 
bodies  a  final  tendency  to  degeneration  and  death.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  care  we  take  of  our  health  is  that  degeneration  slow 
and  gradual. 

3.  The  Chemist  tells  us  that  the  body  is  composed  of  fourteen 
chemical  elements,  and  that  these  and  the  substances  which 
enter  the  body  as  food  give  rise  to  certain  chemical  processes, 
such  as  the  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar,  and  the  production 
of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  Anatomist  speaks  of  the  body  as  composed  of  organs,  i.e., 
portions  which  have  specific  duties  or  f mictions.  Thus  the  eyes 
are  organs  of  sight,  and  the  muscles  organs  of  motion.  He 
refers  to  the  location,  general  structure,  and  mutual  relations  of 
these  organs.  He  groups  together  those  which  have  a  similar 
texture  into  a  system,  — for  example,  the  nervous  system  or  the 
muscular  system ;  and  those  which  have  a  similar  function 
under  the  head  of  an  apparatus,  —  for  example,  the  digestive 
apparatus.  The  processes  with  which  his  study  is  mainl}^ 
concerned  are  largely  mechanical,  and  are  therefore  sometimes 
called  mechanical  pi^ocesses,  —  such  as  the  comminution  and 
grinding  of  the  food  in  the  mouth  to  fit  it  for  swallowing ;  the 
motion  of  the  muscles  of  the  stomach  in  the  digestion  of  food, 
and  of  other  muscles  in  locomotion. 

4.  The  Physiologist,  on  the  contrary,  looks  upon  all  the 
processes  which  are  carried  on  in  the  body  as  essentially  vital 
processes,  though  the  term  is  often  limited  to  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  breathing,  and  digestion.  For  all  processes  are 
alone  made  possible  by  means  of  a  pervading  influence  called 
life,  and  through  them  life  is  maintained,  and  this  "  inherent 
power "  enables  the  living  body  to  assert  its  needs  through  its 
various  parts.  Thus,  if  it  needs  nourishment,  it  calls  for  it 
through  the  stomach  by  means  of  the  ' '  sensation  of  hunger  "  ; 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

when  it  needs  air,  the  lungs  make  known  a  "  desire  for 
breathing."  If  the  strength  of  the  vital  influence  is  diminished, 
impaired  health  results.  If  it  ceases,  what  we  call  death  follows. 
Thus  there  is  death  of  a  part,  i.e.,  local  death,  and  death  of  the 
entire  bod}^,  or  general  death.  So  intimately  are  the  parts  of 
the  body,  especially  the  internal  organs,  related  to  each  other, 
that  if  one  weakens  or  dies,  others  are  liable  to  do  likewise. 
This  chain  of  vital  connections  constitutes  the  so-called  "  circle 
of  life." 

What  is  true  of  the  entire  body  as  to  birth,  growth,  develop- 
ment, decline,  and  death,  is  also  true,  to  a  large  extent,  of  each 
part,  and  of  its  structural  elements. 

5.  Each  individual  part  consists  largely  of  bodies  microscopic 
in  size  called  cells^  from  the  Latin  cella^  a  closet  or  store- 
room.^ Their  shape  is  more  or  less  round,  circular,  fusiform, 
or  stellate,  depending  on  the  structure  in  which  they  may  be. 
Living  cells  are  masses  of  contractile,  jelly-like  material  called 
protoplasm ^^ yfhxoh.  contains  "at  some  period  a  smaller  structure 
called  the  nucleus.''  This  protoplasm  possesses  the  vital  prop- 
erty of  altering  its  form.  This  power  may  be  lost  from  too 
active  stimulation  or  other  causes.  Besides  the  alteration  in 
shape,  some  cells,  like  the  amoeha^^  have  the  power  of  loco- 
motion by  the  protrusion  and  retraction  of  various  portions  of 
the  protoplasmic  mass.  Movements  of  that  sort  are  therefore 
known  as  the  amoeboid  movements.'*  Such  movements  are  said 
to  be  especially  characteristic  of  recently-formed  or  young  cells, 
such  as  the  white  cells  of  the  blood,  lymph  corpuscles,  etc.,  and 
enable  them  at  times  to  pass  into  tissues  to  which  they  do  not 
belong,  when  they  are  called  emigrant  or  migratory  cells,  and 

1  "The  cells  range  from  the  red  blood  cell  (jinriy  inch)  to  the  ganglion  cell 
(3^^  inch)." 

2  From  the  Greek,  protos,  first,  plasma,  material.  It  is  also  caUed  bioplasm, 
i.e.,  life  material. 

3  Simply  constructed,  minute  animals. 

4  **  The  amoeboid  movement  enables  many  of  the  lower  animals  to  capture 
their  prey,  which  they  accomplish  by  simply  flowing  round  and  enclosing  it." — 

KiRKE. 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

may  be  the  cause  of  disorder  and  disease.  Certain  cells,  such 
as  those  in  some  portions  of  the  respiratory  passages,  have  a 
peculiar  motion  known  as  ciliary  motion  or  action,  due  to  the 
vibration  of  ciliae,^  or  microscopic  hair-like  filaments  projecting 
from  the  cells.  All  cells  are  capable  of  producing  cells  like 
themselves.  This  process  is  known  as  cell  reproduction  or 
proliferation.  The  whole  process  involved  in  the  formation  and 
birth  of  a  cell  occupies,  it  is  believed,  but  a  few  minutes  of  time, 
while  the  entire  life  of  cells  is  probably  measured  by  days. 

6.  Hence  there  is  constant  molecular  death  in  the  body,  and 
the  components  of  the  body,  instead  of  completely  changing 
but  once  in  seven  years,  as  was  once  taught,  are  undergoing 
such  constant  change  that  most  of  them  are  renewed  many  times 
in  that  period.  The  brief  existence  of  cells  is  brought  to  an 
end  principally  by  mechanical  abrasion  and  chemical  transfor- 
mation. The  first  mode  occurs  in  the  mouth  and  digestive  tract ; 
for  example,  when  the  cells  covering  the  lining  of  these  parts 
are  rubbed  off  by  the  movements  of  the  parts  and  by  whatever  is 
in  contact  with  them.  The  second  mode  is  seen  in  the  fatty, 
pigmentary,  and  calcareous  deposits  which  occur  in  certain 
parts  under  certain  circumstances. 

7.  Though  cells  have  but  a  brief  existence,  they  are  busy 
workers  while  they  live.  They  have  the  power  of  absorbing 
material  from  surrounding  cells  or  from  the  blood  as  it  reaches 
them ;  of  transforming  the  material  so  absorbed  for  their  own 
use  ;  of  excretion^  or  the  throwing  out  of  waste  material ;  and  in 
some  instances  of  separation  from  the  blood  of  certain  materials 
which  in  a  changed  form  are  afterwards  given  out  as  a  secretion. 
The  power  of  selection  and  assimilation  is  one  of  the  wonders 
of  cell  life.  Each  cell  in  health  takes  from  the  blood  the  mate- 
rial needed  for  its  life.^    Certain  cells  elongate  and  form  fibres. 

1  From  the  Latin,  meaning  an  eijelash. 

2  In  disease,  certain  cells,  such  as  those  of  the  lymph,  one  of  the  circulating 
fluids  of  the  body,  may  convey  to  other  cells,  or  the  latter  may  themselves  take 
up  foreign  particles. 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

8.  Cells  are  connected  either  by  a  delicate  viscid  material 
known  as  intercellular  substance,  or  by  their  processes  or 
extremities.  Through  the  development,  union,  and  connection 
of  cells  the  various  tissues  of  the  body  are  formed,  such  as  mem- 
branes, the  walls  of  delicate  blood-vessels,  muscle  fibres,  and 
nerve  matter.  These  tissues  are  united  in  various  ways  to 
form  the  organs. 

9.  Some  membranes,  when  placed  as  partitions  between  two 
fluids  or  gases,  permit  them  to  mingle.  This  process  is  known 
as  osmosis.  The  passage  of  the  fluid  or  gas  inwards  is  endos- 
mosis;  outwards,  exosmosis.  The  absorption  of  a  fluid  by  a 
cell  or  membrane  is  imhihition.  These  vital  processes  are  illus- 
trated either  in  the  changes  which  occur  in  the  breathed  air 
during  respiration,  or  in  the  transformation  of  food  into  blood. 

10.  The  various  tissues  of  the  body  may  be  classified  as  con- 
nective tissues  and  active  tissues,  the  latter,  muscles,  nerves,  etc., 
being  those  by  which  the  activities  of  the  body  are  performed. 

The  connective  tissues,  as  the  name  implies,  connect  and  hold 
in  place  the  various  organs  of  the  body.  These  tissues  are 
either  of  bone,  cartilage,  or  fat,  or  of  gelatinous,  elastic,  or 
fibrous  material.  Their  chief  function  is  that  of  support.  Deli- 
cate connective  tissues  so  closely  cover,  or  are  so  interwoven  with 
all  the  textures  of  the  body,  that  if  all  the  other  tissue  could  be 
removed  and  the  connective  only  be  left  in  normal  position, 
we  should  have  an  almost  exact  model  of  nearly  every  organ 
in  the  body,  even  to  its  minutest  structure.  What  connective 
tissue  is  will  be  best  understood  if  we  compare  it  with  that  of 
an  orange  after  the  juice  has  been  sucked  out.  The  frame- 
work alone  is  left,  and  this  framework  is  the  connective  tissue. 
As  motion  is  necessary  to  life,  it  will  be  appreciated  how  thick- 
ening of  the  connective  tissue,  which  sometimes  results  from 
disease,  will  impair  the  motion  and  consequent  health  of  parts. 

11.  Before  entering  upon  the  study  of  individual  tissues  and 
organs,  their  structure,  function,  and  the  best  methods  of 
preserving  their  health,  attention  should  be  called  to  our  method 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

of  study.  It  is  deemed  advisable  to  begin  with  the  bony  skele- 
ton, then  to  study  the  tissues  which  overlie  it,  then  those  that 
are  within  it,  and  finally  to  show  how  all  the  parts  may  act  in 
harmony  by  means  of  the  brain,  nerves,  and  the  special  senses. 
The  following  groups  of  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body  are  in 
the  main  as  arranged  by  the  distinguished  teacher  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology,  Prof.  C.  L.  Ford. 

TISSUES   OF    THE  BODY. 

1.  Osseous  —  Bones  and  teeth. 

2.  Cartilaginous  —  Pure  cartilage  and  fibro-cartilage. 

3.  Fibrous  —  White  and  yellow,  i.e.,  the  firm  and  strong,  to  bind  parts 

together,  and  the  elastic  to  afford  elasticity  and  freedom  of  movement. 

4.  Muscular —  Striated  or  voluntary  muscles,  and  non-striated  or  involun- 

tary. 

5.  Adipose  —  Fat  cells  and  enclosed  fat. 

6.  Epithelial — Epithelium,  epidermis,  hair,  and  nails. 

7.  Nervous  —  Cerebro-spinal  and  sympathetic. 

FLUIDS  OF  THE   BODY. 

1.  Circulating  Fluids  —  Chyle,  lymph,  blood. 

2.  Fluids  for  Digestion  —  Saliva,  gastric  secretion,  pancreatic  fluid,  bile, 

intestinal  juice. 

3.  Fluids  of  Closed  Cavities  —  Of  the  arachnoid,  pleural,  pericardial,  and 

peritoneal  sacs,  of  joints,  of  the  eye,  and  ear,  and  of  cells. 

4.  Secretions   for  Protection  —  Cerumen  or  wax,  tears,  fluid  of  mucous 

membranes,  oily  fluids  on  the  surface  of  body. 

5.  Fluids  for  Discharge  —  Intestinal  secretion,  renal  or  kidney  secretion, 

perspiration,  vapor  from  the  lungs,  etc. 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY, 

AND 

HYGIENE. 


FLAT  BONES  OF  THE  SKULL. 


NASAL  BONES-*"W 


\    ar'-THE  CRANIUM. 
^Sf-MALAR  (CH  EEK)  BON E. 

|^--supe:rior  maxillary  bones 
inferior  maxillary  bone 
spinal  column. cervical  region. 
r^^ — --^— clavicle(collar  bone) 


SHOULDER  BLADE 


Fig.  1. 


CHAPTER  I. 
BONES  AND   JOINTS. 

1.  The  general  figure  and  stability  of  the  human  body 
are  maintained  by  the  bones.  Of  these  the  framework  or 
skeleton  is  constructed.  This  framework-  encloses  cavities 
for  the  lodgement  and  protection  of  the  vital  organs.  It 
has  joints  to  facilitate  motion,  and  surfaces  for  the  attach- 
ment and  support  of  the  softer  parts  of  the  body. 

In  the  entire  skeleton  of  an  adult  there  are  204  distinct 
bones.i  The  relations  of  these  to  one  another  are  shown 
in  Fig.  1. 

2.  All  bones  vary  in  form^  and  though  they  are  more 
or  less  irregular,  they  may  be  considered  as  Long,  Short, 
and  Flat.2 


1  Bones  of  the  spinal  column 26 

The  cranium  (skull) 8 

The  ears 6 

The  face 14 

Ribs,  hyoid  bone,  and  breast  bone 26 

The  upper  extremities 64 

The  lower  extremities 60 

Total 204 

This  enumeration  does  not  include  the  patellae  (knee  pans)  or  other  sesa- 
moid bones,  — i.e.,  bones  having  the  form  of  seed.  These  are  situated  in  the 
tendons  or  strings  of  certain  muscles,  where  unusual  pressure  is  exerted  by 
the  gliding  movements  of  the  tendons.  Neither  does  it  include  the  32  teeth 
nor  certain  supernumerary  bones,  called  Wormian  hones,  which  are  some- 
times found  in  incomplete  joints  of  the  skull.  Teeth  are  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  composed  of  bony  or  osseous  tissue,  but  they  "differ  from  bone  in  structure, 
development,  and  mode  of  growth." 

2  Examples  of  the  more  irregular  bones  are  the  vertebrae,  and  some  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull.  These  last  are  the  temporal^  sphenoid,  ethmoid,  superior 
maxillary  (upper  jaw),  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw),  the  palate  bones  in  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  the  inferior  turbinated  bones  in  the  nose. 


2  BONES   AND   JOINTS. 

The  long  hones  are  hollow  shafts  with  two  extremities, 
called  heads,  which  are  generally  expanded,  the  better  to 
form  joints  and  to  afford  increased  surface  for  the  attach- 
ment of  muscles  and  ligaments.  (Fig.  1,  right  leg.)  "  They 
represent  columns  for  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body, 
or  levers  of  different  kinds  for  the  muscles  to  act  upon." 
The  long  bones  are  the  clavicle  (collar  bone),  the  humerus 
(arm  bone),  the  radius  and  ulna  (forearm  bones),  the 
femur  (thigh  bone),  the  tibia  and  fibula  (leg  bones),  and 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet. 

3.  The  short  hones  are  located  in  those  parts  of  the 
body  where  strength,  compactness,  and  elasticity  are  re- 
quired. They  are  strongly  bound  together  by  ligaments. 
Examples  of  short  bones  are  found  in  the  wrist  and  ankle. 

4.  The  flat  hones  aiford  broad  surfaces  for  muscular 
attachment,  and  serve  to  protect  important  organs.  They 
are  the  shoulder  blades,  breast  bone,  ribs,  hip  bones,  and 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

5.  The  structure  of  bones  is  as  follows :  — 

On  the  surfaces  of  bones  are  various  eminences^  and 
depressions.^  The  first  afford  attachment  for  muscles, 
tendons,  and  connective  tissue ;  the  latter,  safe  and  con- 
venient passages  for  blood-vessels,  nerves,  tendons,  and 
muscles.  Through  the  surfaces  of  the  bones  are  openings 
for  the  passage  of  blood-vessels,  nerves,  etc.  These  open- 
ings are  especially  numerous  at  the  extremities  of  long 
bones. 

6.  All  bones  are  enveloped  in  a  firm  vascular  ^  mem- 
brane (the  periosteum),  except  on  the  surfaces  of  joints, 
where  they  are  overlaid  with  a  smooth,  elastic  tissue  known 


1  Tuberosities,  tubercles,  spines,  and  ridges. 
Grooves,  furrows,  fissures,  and  notches. 


BONES   AND   JOINTS. 


3 


as  cartilage.    The  periosteum  clings  closely  to  the  bone  and 
nourishes  it,  and  is  capable,  with  the  aid  of  the  surround- 
ing soft  tissues,  of  producing 
\    new  bone  to  replace  that  re-  I^S^Jl^ 

'0   moved  by  disease  or  surgical 
operations.^ 


7.  If  a  bone  be  sawn  across,       ^''^'^ 

its  walls  will  be  found  to  be 

very   hard    and   strong,  like 

ivory.      This   firm   tissue   is 

called  the  compact  tissue.    In 

a  long  bone  it  is  thicker  in 

the  middle  of  the  shaft  than 

at  the  extremities,  where  it 

disappears  in  a  fine  net-work 

tissue,  called  the  spongy  or 

cancellous  tissue.      The    size 

of  the  bone  along  the  shaft, 

where  strength  is  mainly  re- 
quired,  is   thus    diminished; 

while  at  the  ends  the  extent 

of  surface  which  is  needed  is 

obtained  without  increase  of 

weight.    The  more  expanded 

and     elastic     spongy    tissue 

serves,  too,  both  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  long  bones  and  in  the  interior  of  the  other 
bones,  to  deaden  the  force  of  concussions.  It  is  ordinarily 
filled  with  the  oily  material  known  as  marrow^  which  also 
fills  the  hollow  shaft  or  tube  of  the  long  bones.    This  tube 


Posterior  view  of 
femur,  showing 
the  ridges,  de- 
pressions, and 
openings. 


I 


m 


Fig.  3. 
Longitudinal  section 
of  femur,  showing 
the  compact  and 
cancellous  tissue 
of  bone. 


1  Hence  the  surgeon,  in  removing  dead  bone,  removes  as  little  of  the  perios- 
teum as  possible,  and  thus  has  succeeded,  with  the  aid  of  nature,  in  producing 
new  lower  jaws,  and  even  arm  bones. 


4  BONES  AND  JOINTS. 

or  central  canal  is  therefore  called  the  medullary  canal 
(i.e.,  marrow  canal).  It  is  lined  with  a  vascular  web  of 
connective  tissue  known  as  the  endosteum  or  medullary 
membrane,  which  nourishes  the  inner  parts  of  the  bone. 

8.  Bones  are  composed  of  animal  matter,  mostly  gela- 
tine, and  mineral  matter  ("bone  earth"),  chiefly  calcium 
phosphate.^  The  animal  matter,  in  combination,  renders 
bones  tough  and  elastic,  enabling  them  to  bear  without 
injury  ordinary  shocks,  while  the  mineral  matter  makes 
them  hard  and  rigid,  and  capable  of  sustaining  weights  and 
strains  without  change  of  shape.  Prof.  Robinson  found 
that  a  piece  of  bone  one  inch  square  bore  a  weight  of  five 
thousand  pounds  without  breaking.^ 

9.  In  youth,  the  animal  matter  constitutes  more  than 
one-third  of  the  bone  substance;  and  hence  the  bones  of 
children  are  more  elastic  than  those  of  adults,  and  are  less 
liable  to  be  broken.'  As  the  child  grows,  the  bones  be- 
come stronger  —  being  adapted  to  the  increasing  muscular 
strength.  In  adult  life,  mineral  matter  constitutes  two- 
thirds  of  the  bone  substance.  The  bones  are  then  very 
strong,  though  retaining  considerable  elasticity.  In  old  age. 
the  bones  become  very  brittle  from  an  excess  of  mineral 


1  If  a  bone  be  immersed  in  a  dilute  acid  (as  muriatic,  for  instance),  for  a 
sufficient  time,  the  mineral  matter  will  be  dissolved,  while  the  animal  matter 
will  remain  in  the  perfect  shape  of  the  bone,  which  may  now  be  bent,  or  even 
tied  in  a  knot.  If  a  bone  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire,  the  animal  matter 
will  be  burned  out,  and  the  substance  remaining  in  the  shape  of  the  bone  will 
crumble  when  touched. 

2  "Bone  has  been  found  by  experiment  to  possess  twice  the  resisting  prop- 
erty of  solid  oak.  It  is  also  elastic,  as  is  shown  by  the  resiliency  of  the  fibula 
when  its  shaft  is  pressed  against  its  tibia  ;  and  by  Mr.  Ward's  experiment  of 
placing  the  clavicle  at  right  angles  against  a  hard  body,  and  striking  the  free 
end  a  smart  blow  with  a  hammer,  when  the  bone  will  rebound  a  distance  of 
two  feet." —  Treatise  on  the  Skeleton :  G.  M.  Humphrey,  Esq.,  M.  B.  Cantab. 
F.R.C.S. 


BONES   AND   JOINTS.  5 

matter,  and  are  liable  to  break  from  slight  causes.  An 
aged  person,  incautiously  stepping  from  even  a  foot-stool 
or  curb-stone,  may  break  his  thigh  bone. 

10.  Sometimes  bones  become  brittle  as  the  result  of 
disease.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bones  of  young  children, 
whose  food  is  deficient  in  mineral  elements,  may  contain 
but  one-fifth  of  mineral  matter,  and  be  rendered  so  soft 
and  flexible  as  to  be  readily  distorted  by  muscular  contrac- 
tion and  by  weights  which  they  should  normally  sustain. 
This  diseased  condition  is  known  as  rickets,^ 

11.  The  nutrition  of  bones  during  life  renders  them  very 
different  from  those  of  the  dried  skeleton.  Living  bones 
are  well  supplied  with  blood  through  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  periosteum  and  endosteum.^  Even  the  compact 
tissue,  solid  as  it  appears  to  the  eye,  under  the  microscope 
is  found  to  contain  numerous  vascular  canals.  The  larger 
of  these  run  lengthwise  with  the  bones,  and  are  connected 
with  each  other  and  with  the  periosteum  and  endosteum 
by  transverse  and  slightly  oblique  canals,  in  the  course  of 
which  are  enlargements  or  small  reservoirs.^  In  addition 
to  blood-vessels,  there  are  found  in  bones  nerves,  and,  ac- 

1  In  very  early  life  bones  are  soft  and  cartilaginous.  Gradually  they  be- 
come harder,  as  food  supplies  the  necessary  phosphatic  salts.  Finally,  carti- 
lage is  replaced  by  bone.  If,  during  the  growth  and  development  of  children, 
proper  food  is  not  supplied,  various  deformities  may  result. 

2  Students  are  apt  to  judge  of  bones  in  the  body  by  the  dried  specimens  in 
lecture-rooms  and  museums,  but  they  are  as  much  unlike  as  the  green  and 
dead  twigs  of  a  tree. 

A  bone  of  an  animal  recently  killed  will  be  found  to  have  a  pinkish  hue, 
due  to  the  blood  it  contains. 

If  madder  be  mixed  with  the  food  of  an  animal,  its  coloring  matter  passes 
into  the  blood,  and  after  a  short  time  the  bones  become  red.  If  the  madder  be 
given  on  alternate  days,  the  bones  will  be  marked  alternately  red  and  white. 

3  The  longitudinal  canals  are  called  Haversian  canals,  from  Clopton 
Havers,  their  discoverer;  the  transverse  canals,  canaliculi;  the  reservoirs, 
lacunae.  The  Haversian  canals,  the  canaliculi,  and  the  lacimae  together,  con- 
stitute the  Haversian  system  of  canals. 


b  BONES   AND  JOINTS. 

cording  to  good  authorities,  lymphatics.^  They  are  there- 
fore nourished  by  the  same  means  that  other  and  softer 
tissues  are,  and  like  them  have  the  power  of  selecting 
from  the  blood,  and  appropriating  to  their  own  structure, 
the  substances  needed  for  their  growth  and  development. 
This  process  is  known  as  assimilation. 


Fig.  4. 

Longitudinal  canals  in  compact 
tissue  of  bones,  with  their  con- 
necting canaliculi  and  the  lacu- 
nae.   Magnified  200  diameters. 


Fig.  5. 

Transverse  section  of  compact  tissue  of 
bones,  showing  openings  of  longitudinal 
canals,  the  canaliculi  and  lacunae.  Mag- 
nified 200  diameters.  The  fine  lines  are 
canaliculi ;  the  dark  spots  lacunae. 


12.  Joints.  —  The  junction  of  two  or  more  bones  con- 
stitutes a  joint,  or,  more  technically,  an  articulation.  Joints 
are  classified  as  immovable,  mixed,  and  movable.  The  joints 
of  the  cranial  bones,^  called  sutures  or  dove-tail  joints,  are 


1  Lymphatics  are  vessels  that  carry  lymph  (§  249).  The  nerves  of  bone 
are  few  in  number,  so  that  bones  are  generally  but  slightly  sensitive.  But, 
when  inflamed,  they  become  acutely  sensitive,  the  nerves  being  pressed  upon 
in  their  bony  canals  by  the  products  of  inflammation. 

2  Skull.    See  Fig.  6. 


BONES   AND   JOINTS.  i 

immovable;  those  of  the  vertebrae ^  are  mixed.  Most  of 
the  other  joints  of  the  body  are  movable.  The  varieties  of 
these  are  the  ball  and  socket  joints,  of  which  the  shoulder 
and  hip  are  examples ;  and  hinge  joints,  to  which  class  the 
knee  and  elbow  belong. 

13.   The  skull  rests  and  nods  upon  the  first  vertebra  or 
atlas.     It  also  rests  upon  a  tooth-like  process  of  the  axis^ 


Fig,  6. 
Suture  joints  of  the»ekull. 


Fig.  7. 
Hip  joint  (ball  and  socket). 


or  second  bone  of  the  spinal  column,  which  projects 
upwards  through  a  hole  in  the  atlas  and  forms  a  pivot  or 
swivel  upon  which  the  head  rotates,  or  turns  from  side 
to  side,  the  atlas  also  turning  with  it. 

14.    The  articular  surfaces  of  bones,  or  surfaces  where 
the  joints  are,  are  always  protected  from  friction  by  shields 


1  Boues  of  spinal  column. 


8  BONES  AND  JOINTS. 

of  cartilage  (articular  cartilages),  and  in  the  movable  joints 
by  the  synoviaP  membranes  which  line  their  cavities,  and 
which  secrete  2  and  pour  into  the  joints  as  it  is  needed  a 
lubricating  substance  called  the  synovial  fluid.     The  elas- 


Fig.  8. 

The  Atlas.     1,  opening  for  spinal  cord ;   3-3,  transverse  ligament,  enclosing 
■with  the  bone  an  opening  for  part  of  axis  to  pass  up  through ;  7-7,  resting  ' 
places  for  prominences  on  skull. 

ticity  of  these  cartilages  serves  to  diminish  shocks  from 
walking,  running,  jumping,  etc.,  thus  protecting  the  deli- 
cate structures  of  the  body  from  injuries  wliich  would 
otherwise  result. 


Fig.  9. 

Atlas  and  Axis  in  position.    10,  projection  of  axis,  passing  through  the  atlas, 
upon  which  the  skull  rests. 

15.  The  bones  are  held  together  by  strong  bands  of 
fibrous  connective  tissue,  called  ligaments.  Their  connec- 
tion is  further  strengthened  by  muscles  and  tendons,  and 


1  So  called  from  the  synovia  or  adhesive  fluid  within  it. 

2  Secretion  is  the  separation  from  the  blood  of  certain  specific  materials, 
and  their  storage  in  secreting  glands  or  reservoirs  for  special  use. 


BONES   AND   JOINTS. 


also,  in  some  degree,  by  the  enveloping  fat  and  skin.    The 
accompanying  figure  represents  the  structure  of  joints. 


T  — 


CaL 


Fig.  10. 
Longitudinal  section  of  knee-joint,  showing  tlie  relation  of  the  structures  which  enter 
into  its  composition.  T,  tendon;  SS,  synovial  sac;  Fe,  femur;  P,  patella  or 
knee  pan;  L,  ligament  of  patella;  F,  fat;  T  i,  tibia;  Ca  L,  capsular  or  enveloping 
ligament;  CrL,  crucial  or  cross-shaped  ligament  between  the  ends  of  the  femur 
and  tibia. 


A  Fig.  II.  B 

A.   Longitudinal  section  of  wrist  joints,  showing  the  synovial  sacs  and  membranes 
(see  SS).    B.  Ligaments  of  wrist  joint  (see  L). 

16.  A  dislocation  is  a  "bone  out  of  joint."  Certain 
joints — those  of  the  shoulder,  wrist,  and  fingers,  for  example 
— are  more  liable  to  dislocation  than  others.  Some  healthy, 
well-developed  persons  are  able  to  dislocate  partially  their 
joints  at  will,  —  even  the  hip,  knee,  and  elbow  joints. 


10  BONES   AND   JOINTS. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Of  what  use  are  bones  ? 

2.  How  many  are  there  in  the  body,  and  how  may  they  be  classified  ? 

3.  Describe  the  long  bones,  and  explain  the  use  of  their  length. 

4.  Where  are  the  short  bones  located  ? 

5.  A^Tiat  is  the  special  use  of  flat  bones  ? 

6.  "SVhy  are  there  eminences,  and  why  depressions,  upon  bones ;  and 

why  openings  through  them? 

7.  What  is  the  periosteum,  and  of  what  use  is  it  ?  the  cartilage  ? 

8.  Of  what  kinds  of  tissue  are  bones  constructed?     Describe  them 

and  their  respective  uses. 

9.  What   and  where  is  the  marrow?    the  medullary  canal?    the 

endostium? 

10.  Of  w^hat  are  bones  composed  ? 

11.  Of  what  different  uses  are  the  animal  and  mineral  matter  of  bones? 

12.  What  diverse  effects  may  either  have  upon  the  bones,  and  why  ? 

13.  How  do  the  bones  of  the  young  and  old  differ  ? 

14.  How  are  bones  nourished,  and  what  do  they  contain  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  assimilation  f 

16.  What  is  a  joint  or  articulation,  and  how  are  joints  classified? 

17.  How  are  the  nodding  and  rotating  motions  of  the  head  effected  ? 

18.  What  protects  the  joints  from  friction? 

19.  How  is  the  liability  of  the  delicate  structures  of  the  body  to  injury 

from  shocks  in  jumping,  etc.,  diminished  ? 

20.  How  are  the  bones  held  together,  and  what  is  a  dislocation  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    BONY    FRAMEWORK,    OR 
SKELETON.! 

17.  The  skeleton  is  beautifully  adapted  to  support 
weight.^  It  affords  surfaces  for  the  attachment  of  muscles, 
and  thus  facilitates  the  movements  of  the  body.  Within 
it  are  the  delicate  vital  organs. 

18.  The  main  support  of  the' body ^  is  the  spinal  or 
vertebral  column^  (Fig.  1.)  It  serves  not  only  to  bear 
the  weight  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  but  maintains  it 
in  proper  relation  with  the  lower  part.  Its  lower  end  fits 
in  like  a  wedge  between  the  hip  bones,  and  unites  with 
them  to  form  the  pelvis.  The  spinal  column  is  composed 
of  26  bones  or  vertebrae. 


1  The  skeleton  of  man  is  an  internal  or  endo-skeleton ;  that  of  the  oyster  or 
lobster  an  external  or  exo-skeleton.  The  turtle  has  both  an  internal  and 
external  framework.  The  sturgeon,  besides  an  endo-skeleton,  has  an  irregular 
outer  case  of  superficial  bony  plates  (dermo-skeleton),  which  enables  the  fish 
to  swim  more  safely  in  search  of  food  among  rocks  and  debris. 

2  At  21  years  of  age  the  weight  of  the  human  skeleton  is  about  one-tenth 
that  of  the  entire  body.  It  averages  about  15  lbs.,  yet  is  capable  of  sustaining 
great  weights,  and  can  at  times  be  subjected  to  great  strains  without  injury. 
Dr.  Winship,  the  celebrated  athlete,  though  a  small  man,  could  lift  a  weight 
of  2500  lbs. 

3  The  entire  body  consists  of  the  head,  body  or  trunk,  and  the  limbs  or 
extremities. 

4  It  is  commonly  called  the  hack-bone,  as  though  it  were  but  one  bone. 

s  In  the  neck,  or  "cervical"  region,  there  are  seven  bones  or  vertebrae;  in 
the  back,  or  "dorsal"  region,  tioelve ;  and  in  the  loin,  or  "lumbar"  region, 
five.  The  sacrum  and  coccyx  are  sometimes  called  false  vertebrae,  for  in  very 
early  life  the  first  is  composed  of  five  rudimentary  vertebrae  and  the  second 
of  four.  Hence,  the  number  of  bones  in  the  spinal  column  is  sometimes 
stated  as  33. 


12 


THE  BONY  FRAMEWORK,    OR   SKELETON. 


$Ga 


DC- 


CO 

Fig.  12. 
Longitudinal  section  of  spinal 
column.  CC,  cervical  curve; 
DC,  dorsal  curve;  LC,  lum- 
bar curve ;  S  C,  saccral  curve ; 
S  Ca,  spinal  canal ;  N  O,  open- 
ing for  nerves ;  C,  location  of 
intervertebral  cartilages ;  8, 
sacrum ;  C  O,  coccyx. 


19.  Each  vertebra  1  is  composed 
of  a  disk-like  body,  with  a  bony 
arch  projecting  backwards  from  it, 
and  is  tunnelled  by  a  large  opening 
through  it,  extending  up  and  down, 
or  longitudinally  with  the  body. 
The  vertebrae  are  united  by  strong 
ligaments,  and  are  so  placed  that 
the  openings  through  the  several 
vertebrae  form  one  long  tube  or  tun- 
nel, called  the  spinal  canal^  which 
serves  for  the  lodgement  and  protec- 
tion of  the  spinal  cord,'^  To  and 
from  this  nerves  pass,  through 
notched  apertures  in  the  sides  of 
the  various  vertebral  arches.  The 
posterior  projections  (spines)  of  the 
arches  form  the  ridge  which  may  be 
felt  extending  along  the  middle  of 
the  back.  To  diminish  the  shock 
of  jars  and  falls,  there  are,  between 
the  vertebrae,  cushions  of  very  elas- 
tic cartilage. 

20.  The  vertebral  column  has  four 
curves^  —  the  cervical,  dorsal,  lum- 
bar, and  pelvic.  Two  are  forward 
curves,  and  two  backward.  These 
are    so    nicely    adjusted    that   their 


1  These  bones  are  called  vertebrae,  from  the  Latin  vertere,  to  turn,  because 
they  turn  or  rotate,  and  also  at  times  incline  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  varied 
movements  of  the  body. 

2  A  cord -like  arrangement  of  nerves  (that  is,  many  strands  of  nerves  united 
together  in  one  cord)  which  connect  the  brain  with  other  j)arts  of  the  body,  by 
means  of  branches  sent  out  through  the  si)inal  openings  mentioned  in  the  text. 


THE  BONY  FRAMEWORK,   OR   SKELETON.  13 

relative  positions  are  ordinarily  maintained,  whatever 
the  movements  of  the  body  may  be.  Hence,  pressure 
is  better  distributed  than  would  be  the  case  if  the 
column  were  straight.  Still,  jumping  from  a  height 
upon  a  resisting  surface,  heavy  blows  or  falls,  and  the 
prolonged  and  excessive  action  of  special  muscles  or 
groups  of  muscles,  frequently  produce  spinal  deformities 
and  disease.^ 

21.  Branching  out  from  each  side  of  the  spinal  column, 
in  the  dorsal  region,  are  the  twelve  rihs^  which  are  grooved 
underneath  for  the  passage  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves  to 
the  front  of  the  body.  The  ribs  slope  downward  and 
outward,  and,  with  the  dorsal  vertebrae  and  breast  bone, 
form  the  bony  walls  of  the  thorax  or  chest.  This  arrange- 
ment and  the  elasticity  of  the  cartilages,  which  unite 
most  of  the  ribs  to  the  breast  bone,  permit  considerable 
enlargement  of  the  chest  cavity  in  the  process  of  breath- 
ing.2  Free  movements  of  the  chest  walls  are  necessary 
for  the  health  and  proper  action  of  the  organs  within 
them. 

22.  The  pelvis  consists  of  the  sacrum  and  coccyx 
behind,  the  hip  bones  (innominate  bones)  upon  the  sides, 
and  the  pubic  bone  in  front.  By  its  size,  strength,  curves, 
and  expanded  upper  edges  (hips),  it  is  well  adapted  to 

1  Spinal  curvatures  are  liable  to  result  from  habitual  sitting,  standing,  and 
even  lying  in  wrong  positions.  The  habit  of  bending  over  to  study,  write,  or 
use  the  sewing-machine  is  injurious.  When  standing,  the  body  should  be 
erect,  the  shoulders  held  back  in  an  easy,  comfortable  manner.  When  sitting, 
the  body  or  head  should  be  bent  but  slightly  forward.  Constrained  iwsitions 
are  always  injurious. 

2  The  seven  upper  ribs  upon  each  side  are  called  true  ribs,  because  they  are 
joined  to  the  breast-bone  directly  by  cartilages ;  the  other  five  are  called  false 
ribs,  because  not  so  joined,  —  the  two  upper  being  fastened  by  cartilage  to  the 
cartilages  of  other  ribs,  while  the  two  lower,  which  are  called  "  floating  ribs," 
have  no  cartilages,  their  anterior  ends  being  free  and  floating  as  it  were. 


14 


THE  BONY  FRAMEWORK,   OR   SKELETON. 


support  and  protect  the  organs  within  it.  It  also  assists 
in  supporting  the  upper  part  of  the  boc\y,  by  its  relation 
to  the  spinal  column  and  the  attachment  it  aff^'ords  for  the 
powerful  muscles  of  the  trunk.  Articulating  (that  is, 
forming  joints)  with  the  pelvis  are  the  two  thigh  bones. 
These  are  supported  by  the  bones  of  the  legs,  which  rest 
upon  those  of  the  feet. 

23.  The  hones  of  the  feet  are  arranged  in  the  form  of 
an  arch,  the  forward  part  of  the  foot  and  the  heel  only 
resting  upon  the  ground.     This  arched  form  secures  much 


Fig.  13. 
Bones  of  the  foot  and  their  relative  location, 

elasticity,  and  diminishes  the  shocks  to  other  parts,  in  the 
acts  of  running,  walking,  and  jumping.  It  also^  afPords  a 
more  secure  footing  in  Avalking  and  running  over  uneven 
ground,  in  climbing  ladders,  etc. 

24.  Joined  to  the  trunk,  at  its  upper  and  lower  por- 
tions, are  the  li7nhs  or  extremities.  The  bones  of  each 
upper  extremity  (the  arm  and  its  appendages)  are  the 
clavicle,  scapula,  humerus,  radius,  and  ulna,  and  those  of 
the  wrist  and  hand.  Each  upper  extremity  is  so  arranged 
that  the  hand,  which  assists  in  giving  to  man  his  great 
superiority  over  the  lower  animals,  may  be  freely  used.^ 


1  The  arm  bone  is  longer  than  the  forearm  bones,  and  the  forearm  bones 
than  those  of  the  hand.  This  arrangement,  together  with  very  pliable  fingers, 
and  with  the  thumb,  which  can  readily  be  "  opposed  "  to  all  the  fingers,  charac- 
terizes man  as  distinct  from  and  above  all  other  forms  of  animal  life. 


THE  BOKY  FRAMEWORK,   OR   SKELETON. 


15 


25.  The  lower  extremities  (legs  and  their  appendages) 
have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  upper,  but  have  less 
mobility.  The  bones  of  each  lower  extremity  are  the 
femur,  tibia,  fibula,  knee-pan,  and  the  bones  of  the  ankle 
and  toes. 


Fig.  14. 
Front  view  of  the  contents  of  the  cavities  of  the  chest  and  abdomen.    B,  trachea; 
C,  oesophagus ;   E,  diaphragm;  F,  liver;  I,  spleen;  D,  stomach;   G,  intestines; 
H,  heart;  A,  lungs;  J,  bladder. 

26.   There  are  three  principal  closed  cavities  within  the 
skeleton :  viz.,  the  cranial^  thoracic^  and  pelvic  cavities.^ 


1  In  addition  to  these  cavities,  and  the  marrow  cavities  of  long  bones,  there 
are  cavities  which  contain  air, — sucli  as  the  "frontal  sinuses"  in  the  frontal 
bones  of  the  skull,  which  open  into  the  upper  part  of  the  nose;  the  antrum,  in 
each  half  of  the  upper  jaw;  and  the  sphenoidal  and  ethmoidal  sinuses,  in  the 
sphenoid  and  ethmoid  bones,  etc.  These  reservoirs  of  air  are  concerned  in 
the  processes  of  breathing  and  the  production  of  voice,  and  serve  to  lighten 
the  weight  of  bones. 


16 


THE   BONY   FllAMEWOllK,    OH    SKELETON. 


LEFT  KIDNET 


Fig.    15 

Side  view  of  the  head  and  trunk; 
the  bones  and  soft  coverings  of  the 
cavities  being  renooved,  and  the 
face,  throat,  and  spinal  column 
given  in  longitudinal  sections. 
The  organs  are  in  relief.  A,  lungs ; 
B,  trachea  ;  C,  oesophagus  ;  T>, 
stomach  ;  E,  diaphragm  ;  F,  a 
small  portion  of  the  liver;  G,  in- 
testines ;  H,  heart ;  I,  spleen  ; 
J,  bladder. 


27.  The  cranium,  or  skull,  is 
a  rounded  bony  box,  admirably 
constructed  for  its  particular 
use.^  It  has  a  vaulted  dome, 
side  Avails,  and  very  strong  but- 
tresses in  the  temporal  bones 
which  enclose  the  delicate  organs 
of  hearing.  The  base  is  formed 
of  bones  strongly  wedged  in  to- 
gether, with  openings  so  arranged 
that  the  delicate  blood-vessels  and 
nerves  passing  through  them  are 
not  easily  injured.  Within  the 
cranial  cavity  are  the  brain  and 
the  commencement  of  the  spinal 
cord,  and  also  nerves  and  blood- 
vessels. 

28.  The  thoracic  cavity  ex- 
tends from  the  base  of  the 
neck  above  to  the  diaphragm  ^ 
below,  and  from  the  spinal 
column  and  ribs  behind  to  the 
breast  bone  and  the  cartilages 
of  the  ribs  in  front.  It  con- 
tains the  lungs,  heart,  some 
large  blood-vessels,  nerves,  the 
thoracic  duct,  and  oesophagus  or 
gullet.^ 


1  The  tissue  of  the  flat  hones,  of  which  it  is  composed,  is  arranged  in  layers 
or  "tables."  On  account  of  their  character,  these  were  by  the  Ancients 
likened,  the  outer  one  to  wood,  the  middle  one  to  leather,  and  the  inner  one  to 
(jlass  (from  its  smoothness). 

2  A  strong  muscular  and  tendinous  partition  dividing  the  thoracic  from  the 
abdominal  cavity.     (See  Fig.  14.) 

3  The  lungs  fill  the  larger  part  of  the  cavity. 


THE   BOXY   FRAMEWORK,    OR    SliELETOK.  17 

29.  The  i^elvie  cavity  is  the  space  enclosed  by  the 
pelvic  bones.^  There  is  a  fourth  cavity,  the  abdominal 
cavity^  which  is  partly  enclosed  by  bony  walls  and  in  part 
by  muscles.  It  is  located  between  the  thoracic  and  pelvic 
cavities,  and  contains  the  liver  upon  the  right  side,  the 
stomach  and  spleen  on  the  left,  the  intestines  in  front,  and 
the  pancreas,  kidneys,  receptacle  for  chyle,  and  very  large 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  behind. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Of  what  service  is  the  skeleton? 

2.  What  is  the  main  support  of  the  skeleton,  and  its  use  ? 

3.  How  is  the  spinal  column  fitted  to  the  hip  bones,  and  of  what 

does  it  consist  ? 

4.  Describe  the  vertebrae,  and  how  they  are  separated  from  each 

other,  and  why. 

5.  How  is  the  spinal  canal  formed,  and  what  is  its  object  ? 
G.   How  do  the  nerves  of  the  body  reach  it  ? 

7.  What  curves  has  the  spinal  column,  and  what  is  their  object? 

8.  Describe  the  ribs,  and  explain  the  object  of  their  downward  slope. 

9.  Of  what  bones  does  the  pelvis  consist,  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

10.  Describe  the  lower  portion  of  the  skeleton. 

11.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  feet  arranged,  and  why? 

12.  Of  what  bones  does  each  upper  extremity  or  arm  consist,  and 

what  is  the  object  of  their  arrangement  ? 

13.  What  are  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities,  or  of  each  leg? 

14.  What  cavities  are  in  the  skeleton  ? 

15.  Describe  the  cranium,  and  mention  its  contents. 

16.  Describe  the  thoracic  cavity,  and  mention  its  contents. 

17.  What  cavity  is  above  the  pelvic  cavity,  and  what  are  its  contents  ? 


1  Its  contents  are  the  bladder  and  other  viscera. 


18 


ANALYSIS. 


ANALYSIS   OF  CHAPTERS  FIRST  AND  SECOND. 


BONES. 


'  1.  Classes 


T.  Anatomy 


I 


2.  Structure 


3.  Joints 


4.  Arrangement  ^ 
in  skeleton  . 


Long. 

Short. 
[  Flat. 
'  Compact  tissue. 

Spongy  tissue. 

Periosteum. 

Endosteum. 

Marrow. 

Vascular  canals. 

Canaliculi. 

Lacunae. 

r  Movable. 
'  Classes  ■<  Immovable. 
t  Mixed. 

Cartilages. 
I  Ligaments. 

Synovial  sacs. 
t  Synovial  fluid. 

Skull. 

Spinal  column. 

Ribs. 

Breast  bone. 

Pelvis. 


Extremities 


Upper.— Bones  of 
shoulder,  arms, 
forearm,  and 
hands. 

Lower. — Bones  of 
thighs,  legs,  and 
feet. 


Cavities 


r  1.  Uses 
11.  Physiology  } 


III.  Hygiene 


I  2.  Nutrition   . 


(  1.  Maintenance 
(      of  health  .  .  . 


r  Cranial. 
J  Thoracic. 
I  Pelvic.  ^ 
[Abdominal. 

Columns  of  support. 
Act  as  levers. 
Enclose  cavities. 
Through  blood-vessels. 
Through  nerves. 
Through  lymphatics. 

By  proper  exercise,  rest,  nour- 
ishment, etc.  See  especially 
chapters  on  Food  and  Foods. 


CHAPTER   III. 
MUSCLES    AND    FAT. 

30.  The  muscles,  about  400  in  number,  are  the  direct 
instruments  by  which  the  movements  of  the  several  parts 
of  the  body  are  effected.  They  are  of  a.  deep-red  color,^  and 
constitute  what  is  ordinarily  called  "flesh,"  or,  in  animals, 
"lean  meat."  They  are  grouped  about  the  bones,  to 
which  many  of  them  are  attached.  They  also  form  a 
part  of  the  walls  of  many  organs, — as  the  stomach,  heart, 
intestines,  and  blood-vessels. 

31.  Muscles  liave  different  shapes^  and  are  arranged 
mainly  in  layers  from  within  outward,  occupying  always 
the  best  position  to  facilitate  their  action  and  preserve 
the  compactness,  usefulness,  and  beauty  of  the  parts. 
Those  of  the  face  are,  for  the  most  part,  short  and 
narrow ;  of  the  cranium,  thin  and  flat ;  ^  of  the  thorax, 
abdomen,  and  pelvis,  broad  and  flattened;  and  of  the 
neck  and  extremities,  long  and  rounded. 

32.  The  muscles  grouped  in  the  above-mentioned  lo- 
calities are  known  as  voluntary  muscles?  because  their 
movements  are,  for  the  most  part,  governed  by  the  will. 
The  internal  muscles  of  the  body  are  generally  thin  and 


1  Muscles  but  little  used,  as  in  young  children  and  paralyzed  persons,  have 
a  pale  color.  In  most  of  the  vertebrate  animals  the  flesh  is  red.  In  some  birds 
and  many  fishes  it  is  colorless,  yellowish,  or  pink. 

2  Also  as  "muscles  of  animal  life,"  or  "skeletal"  muscles. 


20 


MUSCLES   AND   FAT. 


A.  —  Posterior  view. 


B.  —  Front  and  side  view. 


Fig    16. 


MUSCLES   AND  FAT.  21 


Fig,  16, 


Muscles  of  the  Body.    Superficial  layer, 

A. 

E,  extensors  of  the  hand. 

B,  biceps  muscle,  flexor  of  arm  and  forearm. 

D,  deltoid,  raises  the  arm  and  moves  it  backwards  and  forwards. 

TRA,  trapezius,  draws  back  and  raises  shoulder. 

TRI,  triceps,  extensor  of  forearm. 

LD,  latissimus  dorsi,  assists  in  respiration  by  moving  the  ribs. 

GM,  gluteus  maximus,  moves  the  thigh  backward  and  outwards. 

VE,  vastus  externus,  extends  the  leg. 

B,  biceps  of  thigh,  flexor  of  leg. 

Gr,  gastrocnemius,  extends  the  foot. 

F,  flexors  of  the  foot. 
TA,  Tendo  AcMllis. 


E,  extensors  of  the  hand. 

F,  flexors  of  the  hand. 
B,  biceps,  etc. 

D,  deltoid,  etc. 

PM,  pectoralis  major,  draws  the  arm  forwards  and  inwards. 

P,  pronator,  rotates  forearm  inwards.  . 

SM,  serratus  magnus,  assists  in  respiration. 

RA,  rectus  abdominis,  that  makes  tense  the  abdominal  walls. 

TF,  tensor  femoris,  that  makes  tense  the  connective  tissue  of  thigh,  and 

moves  the  thigh  outwards. 
S,  sartorius,  flexes  the  leg. 
AD,  adductor  group  of  thigh  muscles. 

RF,  rectus  femoris,  one  of  the  group  of  extensor  muscles  of  thigh. 
TA,  tibialis  anticus,  moves  foot  forwards. 
ET,  extensors  of  the  toes. 


22  MUSCLES  AND   FAT. 

flat,  and  are  inooluntary^  discharging  their  functions  inde- 
pendently of  the  will.  For  instance,  the  simple  presence 
of  food  in  the  stomach  is  sufficient  to  excite  that  muscular 
organ  into  its  normal  and  involuntary  activity .^ 

33.  Voluntary  muscles  are  connected  with  bones,  and 
also  with  cartilages,  ligaments,  skin,  and  other  structures. 
This  connection  is  effected  either  by  muscular  tissue,  or 
by  means  of  white,  firm,  glistening  masses  of  fibrous 
tissue,  known  as  tendons^  or  sinews.^  The  latter  are 
flexible  and  inelastic,  and  are  especially  required  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  connecting  bands  or  cords,  Avhere  the  parts 
of  the  body  to  be  moved  are  remote  from  the  moving 
muscles.  They  thus  obviate  an  unnecessary,  ungainly, 
and  sometimes  impossible  prolongation  of  the  muscles,^ 
and  conduce  to  the  symmetry  and  beauty  of  outline  of 
the  body.  But  for  this  simple  adaptation,  how  bulky 
and  ill-proportioned,  for  example,  would  be  the  wrists  and 
ankles,  through  which,  instead  of  the  muscles,  these  slen- 
der cords  are  made  to  pass ;  and  how  clumsy  the  move- 
ments, which  by  their  means  are  accomplished  with  such 
efficiency,  rapidity,  and  grace !  (a.)  The  strongest  and 
largest  tendon  in  the  body  is  the  "  Tendo  Achillis,"  Avhich 


1  By  some  authorities  certain  muscles  are  called  mixed  muscles,  because 
they  belong  partly  to  the  voluntary  and  partly  to  the  involuntary  classes. 
Such  are  the  muscles  of  respiration,  or  breathing.  Ordinarily,  we  breathe 
without  exertion  of  the  will,  but  to  a  certain  extent  it  is  in  our  power  to  in- 
crease or  suspend  the  process.  "The  muscular  fibre  of  the  heart  presents  a 
structure  intermediate  between  the  two  typical  forms."—  Manual  of  Histology, 

S  ATTERTHWAITE . 

2  This  fibrous  tissue,  in  the  form  of  a  very  resisting  membrane,  is  continu- 
ous with  the  muscular  tissue  of  some  muscles,  and  envelopes  others,  preventing 
their  displacement.  It  is  then  called  an  aponeurosis,  from  the  belief  of  the 
ancients  that  it  was  a  membrane  of  nervous  tissue. 

3  The  tendon  of  one  of  the  muscles  which  moves  the  eye  passes  through  a 
loop  or  pulley.  A  tendon  under  the  jaw  passes  through  a  slit  in  the  tendon  of 
another  muscle  whose  direction  is  different. 


MUSCLES   AND  FAT. 


^3 


connects  certain  muscles  on  the  back  of  the  leg  with  the 
heel.^  Involuntary  muscles,  for  the  most  part,  are  not 
attached  to  bones,  but  to  other  structures. 


Fig.  17.  —  MU.SCLES  OF  Left  Hand.    Front  surface. 

FCU,  flexor  of  ulnar  side  of  the  wrist;  FOR,  flexor  of  radial  side  of  wrist;  SH, 
sheath  of  connective  tissue  through  which  the  tendons  pass ;  OP,  the  opposing 
muscle  of  thumb ;  ABP,  muscle  that  draws  the  thumb  outward  ;  FBP,  the 
short  flexor  of  the  thumb;  ADP,  adductor  that  draws  the  thumb  inwards; 
S  of  T,  sheath  of  tendon  in  position,  removed  from  other  fingers  to  show  the 
arrangement  of  tendons  ;  FS,  long,  superficial  flexor  of  the  fingers;  FP,  the 
long,  deep  flexor  of  the  fingers ;  AMD,  that  pulls  the  little  finger  outward. 

34.  Voluntary  muscles  are  made  up  of  bundles  of 
fibres.  Each  fibre  is  tightly  enclosed  by  a  structureless 
membrane,  called  sareolemma^  which  is  very  elastic,  and 


1  So  called  (the  Tendon  of  Achilles)  from  the  Grecian  fiction,  that  this 
tendon  was  the  only  vulnerable  portion  of  the  body  of  Achilles. 

Tendons  may  be  readily  felt  at  the  wrists,  ankles,  the  bend  of  the  elbows, 
and  under  the  knees,  especially  when  the  muscles  are  tense. 


24 


MUSCLES   AND   FAT. 


allows  of  the  free  movements  of  the  fibre.     The  several 
bundles  of  fibres  are  surrounded,  as  is  also  the  entire 


Fig.  18. 

Traverse  section  of  a  leg.  —  B,  bone;  C,  connective  tissue;  F,  fat  (adipose  tissue) ; 

V,  veins;  M,  muscles;  BL,  blood-vessels  (arteries  and  veins). 

muscle,  with  connective  tissue,  holding  together  the  fibres 
in  each  bundle,  and  the  several  bundles  in  the  one 
muscle. 

"Each  fibre  is  divided  longitudinally 
into  a  varying  number  of  what  are  called 
muscle  columns^  held  together  probably 
by  a  delicate  cement."  ^  The  muscle 
columns  are  called  by  some  fihrillae  (little 
fibres). 

A  muscular  fibre  of  a  voluntary  muscle, 
under  the  microscope,  is  shown  to  have 
alternate  dark  and  light  cross  stripes,  or  striae.     Hence, 
voluntary  muscles  are  also  known  as  striated^  or  striped.^ 

1  S alter thw aite' s  Histology.    Dr.  Thomas  Dwight. 

2  These  transverse  stripes  are  by  some  authorities   believed    to  be  the 
boundary  lines  of  muscle  cells  in  each  muscle  column,  while  others  believe 


VFib 


Fig.  19. 

Cross-section  of  a  fibre 

of  voluntary  muscle, 

magnified.— 8,  sarco- 

lemma;  Fib,  fibrillac. 


Muscles  and  fat. 


25 


Involuntary  muscles  are  also  composed  of  fibres,  but 
these  are  spindle  shaped,  and  iinstriped,  and  form  tissues 
by  the  interlacing  of  the  fibres. 

35.  Muscles  are  abundantly  supplied  with  hlood.  Be- 
tween and  beneath  the  muscles  are  large  blood-vessels, 
whose  smaller  branches  pass  between  the  fibres.     These 

blood-vessels  are  accompanied  by 
nerves.  The  nerves  of  voluntary 
muscles  are  chiefly  motor  nerves, 
or  those  which  preside  over  mo- 
tion, while  a  great  part  of  those 
of  involuntary  muscles  are  sensory 


Fig.  20. 
A  portion  of  a  voluntary  fibre, 
showing  tlie  fibrillae,  trans- 
verse striae,  and  the  sarco- 
lemma  detached  at  one  point. 
Magnified  250  diameters. 


Fig.  21. 
Non-striated  fibres  of  involuntary  muscles, 
somewhat  separated  from  each  other  for 
microscopic  examination. 


nerves,  or  those  which  preside  over  sensation.     Fat  cells 
are  sometimes  found  amoung  muscular  fibres. 

36.  The  fibres  of  living  muscle  tissue  are  composed  of  a 
translucent  jelly-like  material,  sometimes  called  muscle 
plasma.  Three-fourths  of  this  muscle  plasma  is  water; 
the  remaining  fourth  is  composed  of  common  salt,  calcium 


that  they  represent  transverse  disks  of  the  width  of  the  fibre;  others  still, 
believe  that  the  so-called  cells  and  disks  are  not  found  during  life,  but  that 
they  result  from  changes  after  death. 


26  MtJSCLES   AISTD   FAT. 

phosphate,.^  albuminous  material  (i.e.,  like  albumen,  see 
§159),  and  extractive  matters.^  The  principal  ingredient, 
water,  gives  to  muscles  their  softness  and  flexibility.^ 

37.  Muscles  are  essentially  organs  of  motion.  On  ac- 
count of  their  location  and  arrangement,  they  also  shield 
blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  and  nerves;  serve  to  diminish 
the  force  of  shocks  and  blows  ;  and,  in  connection  with  the 
bones,  enclose  the  cavities  of  the  thorax,  abdomen,  and 
pelvis.  By  means  of  muscles  the  varied  and  wonderful 
movements  of  the  body  are  performed,  and  speech  is 
rendered  possible.  Through  the  action  of  muscular  fibres 
the  heart  pulsates,  the  blood  circulates,  and  respiration, 
digestion,  and  the  other  vital  processes  are  carried  on. 

38.  These  muscular  movements  result  from  the  contrac- 
tility of  muscular  tissue.  This  property  of  shortening  and 
thickening  their  bulk  when  tense,  or  in  a  state  of  action, 
and  of  becoming  elongated  and  thinner  when  relaxed,  or 
in  a  state  of  rest,  is  peculiar  to  muscle  fibres,  and  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  muscular  irritability.  Contractility  is 
normally  excited  in  voluntary  muscles  by  the  will  acting 
through  the  nervous  system,  but  it  can  be  called  into 
action  also,  independently  of  the  will,  by  various  kinds  of 
stimulation, — such  as  pinching,  pricking  with  a  needle, 

1  Formerly  called  "phosphate  of  lime." 

2  Ingredients  in  100  parts  of  muscle  plasma :  — 

Water 75.00 

Albuminous  material 22.00 

Extractive  matters 2.55 

Calcium  phosphate 25 

Common  salt 02 

100.00 

3  Where,  in  certain  diseased  conditions,  or  from  overwork,  the  fluids  of  the 
hody.are  diminished,  certain  muscles  in  motion  produce  creaking  sounds  as 
their  tendons  pass  through  grooves  or  canals.  As  soon  as  death  occurs,  muscles 
begin  to  be  rigid. 


MUSCLES   A^B  FAT.  27 

the  application  of  an  acid,  electricity,  etc.  In  involuntary 
muscles,  it  ordinarily  results  from  nervous  stimulus.^  Con- 
tractions may  be  extremely  gentle,  as  when  the  muscles 
of  the  eye  or  hand  are  engaged  in  delicate  work ;  or  they 
may  be  powerful,  as  in  athletic  sports  or  in  heavy  lifthig. 
Prolonged  use  of  muscles,  the  want  of  use,  a  supply  of 
poor  or  insufficient  blood,  certain  poisons,  etc.,  lessen 
their  normal  irritability. 

39.  The  respective  groups  of  muscles  are  named  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  motion  produced,  their  position, 
uses,  etc.2  Muscles  that  bend  the  joints  are  called  flexors, 
—  as,  for  example,  those  on  the  front  of  the  arm  that  bend 
the  forearm,  and  on  the  back  of  the  thigh  that  bend  the 
leg.  Those  which  restore  the  bent  j)arts  to  a  straight 
condition  are  extensors.  The  extensors  corresponding  to 
the  above-mentioned  flexors  are  located,  as  the  necessity 
of  the  case  demands,  on  the  back  of  the  arm  and  the  front 
of  the  thigh.  Rotator  muscles  are  those  "which  turn  the 
parts  to  which  they  are  attached  upon  their  axes."  Such 
are  the  oblique  muscles  of  the  eye  and  those  attached  to 
the  radial  bone  of  the  forearm.  It  is  by  means  of  the 
latter  that  the  forearm  and  hand  can  be  turned  round  so 
as  to  present  either  side  at  pleasure. 

Adductors  are  muscles  which  move  parts  toward  the 
axis  of  the  body,  and  abductors  those  which  move  parts 
from  the  axis  of  the  body.     Of  the  first,  the  large  muscles 

1  Muscles  are  also  elastic,  and  are  said  to  have  "  tone  "  when  they  promj)tly, 
and  in  a  normal  manner,  respond  to  stimuli. 

2  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  weary  the  student  with  the  technical 
appellations  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  Ancients.  Their  length  is 
often  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  muscle  named.  For  instance,  a 
very  short  muscle  which  extends  from  one  corner  of  the  upper  lip  to  the  nostril 
upon  the  same  side  of  the  face,  wliose  function  is  merely  to  raise  the  lip,  as  in 
sneering,  is  called  the  ''levator  lahii  superioris  alaeque  nasi,"  while  a  very 
long  and  important  muscle  of  the  thigh  is  more  plainly  named  the  * '  sartorius, " 
i.e.,  the  "tailor,"  because  it  is  the  principal  muscle  by  which  that  useful  func- 
tionary assumes  his  familiar  position  for  work. 


28  MUSCLES   AND   FAT. 

of  the  chest  and  back  Avhich  draw  the  arm  to  the  side, 
and  those  which  draw  the  lower  extremities  together,  are 
examples ;  of  the  latter  may  be  named  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder,  and  the  outer  muscles  of  the  thigh. 

Sphincters  are  annular  muscles,  which  close  or  constrict 
certain  natural  openings  of  the  body,  as  the  eye  and 
mouth. 

40.  Muscles,  such  as  the  flexors  and  extensors,  the 
abductors  and  adductors,  which  produce  by  their  action 
entirely  opposite  movements,  are  called  opposing  or  antago- 
nistic. The  result  of  the  combined  action  of  opposing 
muscles,  when  excessive,  is  rigidity.  It  is  the  easy  com- 
bined action  of  the  opposing  muscles  which  enables  us  to 
stand,  or  to  apply  a  force  properly  graduated  to  the 
necessities  of  the  most  delicate  muscular  work.  (<«.)  The 
action  of  opposing  muscles,  when  healthy,  is  nicely  ad- 
justed, so  as  not  to  interfere  with  their  mutually  free  and 
easy  movements.  Their  abnormal  action  is  exenijDlified 
in  the  rigidity  which  takes  place  in  convulsions,  and  in 
"lead  palsy,"  where  the  unchecked  contraction  of  the 
flexors  of  the  forearm,  through  paralysis  of  its  extensors, 
produces  a  falling  of  the  hand  known  as  "wrist  drop.'' 

41.  There  are  also  what  are  termed  the  muscles  of 
expression.  Ordinarily,  we  show  how  we  feel  by  our 
features,  and  the  position  and  movements  of  the  body. 
The  expression  of  the  emotions  is  effected  mainly,  how- 
ever, by  the  varied  movements  of  the  facial  muscles, 
especially  those  which  move  the  lips,  eyelids,  eyebrows, 
etc.,  and  of  the  muscles  which  move  the  loAver  jaw. 
Hence  these  muscles  are  spoken  of  as  the  "muscles  of 
expression."  ^ 

1  It  is  stated  by  Dunglison  that  there  are  70  pairs  of  muscles  in  the  neck 
and  face;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  body  is  capable  of  5000  different 
movements,  and  the  face  of  750  different  exj)ressions. 


MUSCLES   AND   FAT.  29 

42.  For  the  healthy  growth  and  development  of  muscles, 
alternate  exercise  and  rest  are  indispensable.  Over-worked 
muscles,  equally  with  idle  muscles,  waste  away ;  and,  in 
the  latter  case,  useless  fat  may  take  the  place  of  the 
muscular  fibres.  Healthy  muscles,  therefore,  require  a 
constant  supply  of  good  blood,  sufficient  nerve  stimulus. 


Fig.  22.— Muscles  of  Expression. 

and  proper  exercise  and  rest.  Without  these  requisites, 
waste  products  (principally  carbonic  acid)  accumulate, 
and  muscular  activity  is  diminished.  In  the  arrangement 
of  nature,  certain  muscles  are  intended  to  be  at  rest  while 
others  are  in  activity.  Even  the  fibres  of  a  single  muscle 
do  not  all  act  at  the  same  time.  This  provision  does  not 
dispense,  however,  Avith  the  necessity  for  additional  rest 
in  sleep. 


30  MUSCLES   AND   FAT. 

43.  All  parts  of  the  body,  the  brain  included,  require 
rest,  and  share  directly  or  indirectly  in  the  benefits  of 
sleep,  (a.)  Particularly  refreshing  is  the  early  portion  of 
sleep,  and  that  which  is  least  disturbed  by  uneasy  dreams, 
mental  effort,  and  anxiety.  Generally,  the  more  both 
mind  and  body  can  be  withdrawn  from  all  extrinsic  stimuli 
the  better.  The  amount  of  sleep  needed  by  different 
persons  varies  according  to  the  age  and  condition  of  indi- 
viduals. The  greater  part  of  infancy  is  generally  passed 
in  slumber;  and  in  old  age  also  much  sleep  is  required. 
In  middle  life,  usually,  about  eight  hours  a  day  is  neces- 
sary, though  it  is  reported  of  Frederick  the  ^reat  and 
Napoleon  that  they  slept  but  three  or  four  h^urs  out  of 
the  twenty-four.  (5.)  Needed  restoration  is  to  be  often 
sought  in  a  change  of  employment^  whether  of  work  or 
amusement,  as  well  as  in  sleep.  In  such  cases,  if  amuse- 
ment be  needed,  it  becomes  as  much  one's  duty  to  j)lay  as 
before  it  was  to  work. 

44.  Fat.  —  This  substance  usually  constitutes  about 
one-twentieth  part  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  body.  It  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  with  the  exception  of  the 
bones,  teeth,  and  fibrous  tissues,  either  in  the  form  of 
globules  and  granules  of  oil,  or  of  an  eraulsion,^  or  in 
masses.  In  the  latter  form  it  is  called  adipose  tissue^  the 
most  familiar  example  of  which  is  that  which  is  imbedded 
in  the  areolar  or  connective  tissue,  between  the  skin  and 
the  muscles. 

Animal  fat  is  generally  a  mixture  of  three  varieties  of 
fat,  —  stearine,  margarine,  and  oleine.  Stearine  and  mar- 
garine are  more  or  less  solid,  as  usually  seen  in  the  meat 
of  animals ;  but  in  the  live  body,  at  its  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, they  are  held  in  solution  by  the  oleine  with  which 
they  are  associated. 

1  That  is,  in  suspension,  as  in  milk. 


MUSCLES  AND  FAT. 


31 


45.  By  the  arrangement  of  the  fat  about  the  internal 
organs,  between  the  muscles,  under  the  skin,  and  about 
the  joints,  it  acts  as  cushions  to  these  structures,  maintains 
their  temperature^  fills  up  inequalities  in  and  about  the 
various  structures,  and  greatly  enhances  the  beauty  and 
symmetry  of  the  human  form.  It  also  serves  for  nutrition 
in  time  of  need,  as  is  particularly  to  be  observed  in  torpid 
animals^  and  in  emaciating  diseases.  In  fact,  fat  being 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  contains  ele- 


Fig.  23. 
AT,  adipose  tissue ;  C,  fat  in  cells  of  cocoa- 
nut,  as  viewed  through  the  microscope. 


Fig.  24. 
M,  fat  globules  in  milk ;  E,  fat  globules 
in  an  emulsion.    Microscopic  view. 


ments  which  are  essential  to  the  nutrition  and  growth  of 
tissues,  and  is  found  in  quantity  whenever  cell  growth  is 
rapid,  especially  in  the  case  of  healthy  young  children. 

46.  The  amount  of  fat  in  different  persons  depends  upon 
age,  race,  and  hereditary  tendency  ;  also  upon  the  weather, 
climate,  and  occupation ;  yet  there  is  probably  a  normal 
limit  as  to  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  case  of  each  individual. 


1  The  common  tortoise,  for  instance,  burrows  in  the  earth  in  the  latter  part 
of  autumn,  and  does  not  reappear  till  spring  has  well  advanced.  Some  species 
of  bears  become  very  fat  toward  the  winter  time;  and  then,  during  the  winter, 
while  hibernating,  eat  no  food,  as  far  as  is  known.  In  the  spring  thejr  come 
out  of  their  hiding-places,  lank  and  hungry. 


32  MUSCLES   AND   FAT. 

Any  amount  beyond  this  limit  is  likely  to  be  not  only 
inconvenient,  but  distressing  and  even  dangerous  to  life, 
either  by  impeding  the  action  of  the  heart  or  by  taking  the 
place  of  important  tissues,  thereby  producing  a  diseased 
condition  which  is  known  as  "fatty  infiltration." 

Ordinarily,  a  steady  gain  of  fat  within  the  normal  limit 
indicates  an  improving  condition  of  the  blood  and  better 
nutrition,  while  a  deficiency  is  often  the  first  note  of  alarm 
to  warn  us  of  the  approach  of  consumption,  scrofula,  or 
some  other  serious  disease  which  has  begun  its  stealthy 
march  in  a  faulty  nutrition.^  Rapid  loss  of  fat  usually 
indicates  impoverishment  of  the  blood.^ 

47.  "Fatty  tissue  is  the  most  fluctuating  in  bulk  of  all 
the  tissues  of  the  body,"  for  within  a  very  short  time  a 
large  amount  may  aj)pear  or  disappear.  Its  increase  is 
promoted  by  many  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  substances 
used  as  food,  and  it  is  the  result  also  of  chemical  changes 
that  occur  in  the  body  in  such  food  as  starch  and  sugar. 
It  is  often  injuriously  increased  by  impoverished  blood 
during  sickness  or  idleness,  by  a  continued  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks  (especially  ale,  beer,  and  porter),  and  by  fatty, 
sugary,  and  starchy  foods.  It  may  be,  therefore,  dim- 
inished sometimes  by  a  partial  or  complete  omission  of  the 

1  It  has  been  observed  that  cooks,  butchers,  oilers,  etc.,  are  generally 
exempt  from  such  affections,  and  it  is  believed  by  some  authorities  that  the 
exemption  is  due  to  the  fat  absorbed  by  their  skins  from  the  materials  which 
they  handle. 

2  Sometimes,  in  emaciating  diseases,  or  as  the  result  of  excessive  alcoholic 
stimulation,  the  oleine  partially  disappears  from  the  adipose  tissue,  and  is 
replaced  by  watery  serum,  as  it  is  called.  "There  is  a  popular  idea,"  says 
Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  in  his  valuable  little  treatise  (Fat  and  Blood,  and  IIoio  to 
Make  Them),  "  which  has  probably  passed  from  the  agriculturist  into  the  com- 
mon mind  of  the  community,  to  the  effect  that  human  fat  varies,  —  that  some 
fat  is  wholesome  and  some  unwholesome;  that  there  are  good  fats  and  bad 
fats.  I  remember  well  an  old  nurse  Avho  assured  me  when  I  was  a  student  that 
'some  fats  is  fast  and  some  is  fickle,  but  cod-oil  fat  is  easy  squandered.' 
There  are  more  facts  in  favor  of  some  such  idea  than  I  have  space  for;  but  as 
yet  we  have  no  distinct  chemical  knowledge  upon  the  subject." 


MUSCLES   AND   FAT.  33 

articles  of  food  and  drink  mentioned  above,  also  by  proper 
bathing  and  attention  to  the  excretory  organs,  and  by 
systematic,  well-adapted  exercise.  It  can  seldom,  with 
safety,  however,  be  kept  below  the  individual's  normal 
standard  for  a  great  length  of  time.  The  use  of  drugs  or 
medicines  as  anti-fat  remedies  is  not  always  safe,  nor  is  it 
generally  efficacious. 

QUESTIONS. 

1 .  Describe  muscles. 

2.  What  is  their  chief  use? 

3.  What  two  grand  divisions  of  muscles  are  there? 

4.  How  are  muscles  attached  to  the  parts  to  be  moved  ? 

5.  Why  are  tendons  used  for  this  purpose  ? 

6.  Why  are  the  voluntary  muscles  more  often  attached  to  bones  than 

the  involuntary? 

7.  Why  do  blood-vessels  and  nerves  accompany  muscles  ? 

8.  What  is  the  chief  constituent  of  muscle  substance  ? 

9.  What  other  uses  have  muscles  besides  being  organs  of  motion? 

10.  To  what  is  the  moving  power  of  muscles  due? 

11.  How  may  the  contractility  of  muscles  be  excited? 

12.  How  may  their  irritability  become  weakened? 

13.  What  are  opposing  or  antagonistic  muscles  ?    Give  examples. 

14.  What  are  the  respective  results  of  their  normal  and  abnormal 

action  ? 

15.  Name  other  sorts  of  muscles. 

16.  What  are  the  muscles  of  expression? 

17.  What  is  necessary  for  muscles  to  be  healthy  and  well  developed? 

18.  When  is  sleep  most  beneficial? 

19.  What  periods  of  life  require  most  sleep? 

20.  How  may  muscles  be  refreshed  without  cessation  of  activity? 

21.  What  are  the  varieties  of  fat? 

22.  What  its  uses? 

23.  How  does  excessive  fat  become  dangerous? 

24.  How  may  fat  be  increased ?  how  diminished? 

25.  What  about  the  use  of  drugs  to  that  end? 


CHAPTER   IV. 
MUSCULAR    EXERCISE. 

48.  Physical  culture  has  engaged  the  attention  of  man- 
kind, in  a  varying  degree,  from  the  very  earliest  times. 
Its  object,  at  first,  was  to  strengthen  man  for  defense 
against  his  fellow  men  and  wild  animals.  At  a  later 
date,  in  the  Grecian  games,  athletic  contests  were  eagerly 
entered  into  in  a  spirit  of  emulation,  and  for  the  culti- 
vation and  exhibition  of  strength  and  beauty.  Among 
the  Spartans  the  women,  as  well  as  the  men,  had 
their  physical  training.  And  3^et,  we  are  told  by  the 
medical  writers  of  those  times  that  the  excessive  exercise 
indulged  in  by  many  of  the  athletes  rendered  them  "dull, 
sluggish,  and  torpid,  and  that  they  only  averaged  five 
years  of  (athletic)  life."  Still  later,  in  the  gymnasia,  or 
schools  of  the  Greeks,  efforts  were  first  made  to  combine 
physical  and  mental  education,  so  as  to  produce  "a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body."  Yet,  even  at  the  present  time, 
the  true  value  of  proper  muscular  exercise  in  restoring,  as 
well  as  in  maintaining  health,  is  not  fully  appreciated. 
The  primary  effect  upon  the  system  of  proper  exercise,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  is  to  insure  the  health,  strength, 
and  tonicity  of  muscles ;  and  secondarily,  by  means  thereof, 
the  health  of  the  other  tissues  of  the  body. 

49.  Proper  muscular  exercise  is  that  which  is  suited  to 
the  health  and  strength  of  the  individual.  It  should  be 
varied   and   agreeable    in    character,    and   pursued   daily, 


MUSCULAR  EXERCISE.  35 

either  in  the  open  air  or  in  well-ventilated  places,  but 
never  to  the  point  of  weariness.  Exercise  —  walking,  for 
example  —  which  is  systematically  undertaken  merely  for 
the  sake  of  exercise,  is  not  only  irksome,  and  likely  to  be 
suspended  after  a  time,  but  is  not  as  beneficial  as  when  it 
is  associated  with  an  agreeable  visit,  beautiful  scenery,  the 
gathering  of  flowers  and  shells,  or  even  the  purchase  of 
some  desired  object.^ 

50.  Exercise,  besides  developing  and  strengthening  the 
muscles^  causes  a  muscular  pressure  upon  the  blood-vessels, 
and  increases  the  force  and  rapidity  of  the  circulation^  thus 
promoting  the  consumption  of  oxygen  ^  by  the  tissues,  and 
the  elimination  from  them  of  carbonic  acid  and  other 
waste  products.  Through  exercise  the  breathing  power  is 
developed^  the  appetite  improved^  digestion  made  stronger^ 
the  accumulation  of  fat  diminished^  and  animal  heat  in- 
creased. The  nervous  system  also  shares  in  the  general 
improvement,  and,  as  a  consequence,  better  mental  work  is 
made  possible.^  In  those  colleges  and  schools  where 
physical  culture  is  attended  to,  the  mental  as  well  as  the 
physical  strength  of  the  students  has  been  found  to  be 
improved.  («.) 


1  "I  have  heard  that  that  benevolent  nobleman,  Lord  Rosse,  during  the 
famine  years,  anxious  to  relieve  distress,  and  equally  anxious  not  to  encourage 
habits  of  pauperism,  paid  men  so  much  a  day  for  digging  holes  in  his  demesne, 
and  paid  them  again  for  the  filling  of  them  up.  The  laborers  are  said  to  have 
manifested  the  most  extreme  disgust  at  the  occupation,  although  the  work 
was  not  harder  than  most  useful  labors.  It  is  this  sense  of  the  inutility  of  the 
work  done  by  the  labor  in  some  of  the  military  prisons  which  constitutes  much 
of  the  severity  of  the  punishment.  And  this  remark  is  as  true  of  mental  exer- 
cise as  of  bodily."  —  Lectures  on  Public  Health.    Mapother, 

2  The  vivifying  principle  of  the  atmosphere  which  reaches  the  blood  and 
the  tissues  through  the  lungs. 

3  "  Those  nations  have  shown  the  most  intellectual  strength  who  have 
exhibited  the  most  physical  stamina."  —  Dr.  Beddoe,  in  a  paper  on  the 
Stature  and  Bulk  of  Man  in  the  British  Isles. 


3b  MUSCULAR   EXERCISE. 

51.  In  fact,  in  all  cases,  there  should  be  as  much  as 
possible  a  corresponding  development  of  the  wliole  man} 
Engravers,  telegraph  and  sewing-machine  operators,  tailors, 
shoemakers,  and  all  persons  who,  in  plying  their  vocation, 
use  one  set  of  muscles  mainly,  are  liable  to  paralysis  of 
those  muscles,  (a.)  Such  persons  should,  each  day,  engage 
for  a  time  in  exercises  that  will  call  into  action  the  other 
muscles  of  the  body.  In  like  manner,  those  whose  callings 
lead  them  to  the  exercise  of  their  brains  only,  to  the 
neglect  of  their  muscles,  make  too  large  a  demand  upon 
the  nervous  system,  and  pay  the  penalty  in  disorders  of 
that  system. 

52.  The  poivers  of  endurance  of  individuals  are  very 
unequal.  Accordingly,  what  would  be  proper  exercise 
for  one  person  may  be  very  improper  for  another.  Some 
feeble  persons  are  too  ambitious  and  need  restraint,  as 
much  as   the   lazy  need    urging.      Exercise  attended   by 

•  severe  or  sudden  strains  upon  undeveloped  muscles,  or 
that  is  beyond  the  strength  of  the  individual,  or  of  a  kind 
to  which  he  is  unaccustomed,  will  be  followed  by  bad 
results, — for  example,  by  exhaustion,  cramps,  loss  of 
appetite,  overstrained  heart,  and  even  diseases  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  nervous  system,  (a.)  The  hard  work 
necessitated  by  certain  occupations  of  life  often  produces 
serious  results,  even  in  very  strong  and  well-developed 

1  Large  persons  with  powerful  muscles,  but  with  little  endurance,  are  not 
able  to  accomplish  as  much  as  wiry  small  ones,  whose  powers  of  endurance  have 
been  developed  by  gradual  training,  "A  man  of  good  physical  capacity  may 
be  trained  so  that  the  voluntary  muscles  of  his  arms  and  chest  would  be  power- 
fully developed  with  a  contractile  force  proportionate  to  their  size,  and  yet  his 
respiratory  power  shall  be  so  disproportionate  that  he  could  not  run  a  hundred 
yards  without  gasping ;  and  another,  or  the  same  individual,  if  possessing 
ordinary  locomotive  capacity  and  fair  development,  may  be  trained  to  run  ten 
times  the  distance  without  distress,  but  the  voluntary  muscles  of  whose  arms 
and  chest  shall  remain  as  they  stood  at  the  time  that  the  training  began."  — 
Training  in  Theory  and  Practice.    McLaren, 


MUSCULAR   EXERCISE.  37 

men.  It  is  especially  important  that  such  occupations 
should  be  carried  on  in  the  open  air,  or  in  well-ventilated 
rooms,  and  that  the  workers  should  have  the  proper  kind 
and  amount  of  food.  Attention  to  these  details  would 
undoubtedly  save  lives,  especially  of  young  men  and 
women. 

53.  Young  children,  even  babies,  should  not  be 
carried  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  They  will 
exercise  themselves  sufficiently  if  placed  in  warm  but 
well-ventilated  rooms,  where  the  limbs  can  have  free 
movements,  unimpeded  by  tight  or  heavy  clothing.  Child- 
hood, indeed,  is  a  period  of  restless  activity,  and  by  the 
time  a  child  is  three  years  old  systematic  exercise  becomes 
necessary.  Gentle  walks,  running  after  and  throwing 
balls,  playing  with  clean  sand,  and  the  like,  should  be 
regularly  permitted  and  encouraged.  Much  harm  is  caused 
by  confining  young  children  and  putting  barriers  around 
their  natural  desires  for  play.  In  the  case  of  older  chil- 
dren and  youth,  no  system  of  artificial  exercise  can  take 
the  place  of  that  afforded  by  the  usual  out-door  games, 
such  as  base  ball,  foot  ball,  leap  frog,  hoop  rolling,  hare 
and  hounds,  etc.,  always  provided  they  are  not  played  too 
roughly  or  continued  too  long.  These  sports  may  be  pur- 
sued advantageously,  as  a  rule,  up  to  forty  or  forty-five 
years  of  age.  At  about  this  age  natural  degenerative 
changes  occur  in  the  body,  and  care  is  particularly  neces- 
sary that  the  heart  and  blood-vessels  be  not  overstrained. 
Hunting  (if  moderate),  fishing,  etc.,  are  more  suitable  to 
this  period  of  life.  At  sixty  and  upt^ards  exercise  con- 
tinues necessary;  but  the  tissues  having  become  still 
weaker,  it  should  be  very  gentle  in  character. 

54.  There  is  no  physiological  reason  why  girls^  instead 
of  being  limited  to  a  round  of  spiritless  games  which  are 


38  MUSCULAR   EXERCISE. 

of  very  little  use  in  developing  strength,  quickness  of 
motion,  and  the  power  of  endurance,  should  not  engage 
in  many  of  those  sports  which  are  the  delight  of  boys.  (<x.) 
The  opportunities  for  out-door  exercise  by  girls  and  women 
are,  unfortunately,  not  so  many  nor  so  diversified  as  for 
boys  and  men.  In  a  few  cities,  however,  a  change  for  the 
better  has  been  effected,  and  out-door  sports  are  encour- 
aged in  the  large  parks  and  pleasure  grounds.  Sedentary 
habits  are  especially  the  bane  of  women  in  prosperous 
circumstances.  It  sometimes  happens,  therefore,  that  the 
loss  of  wealth,  by  bringing  with  it  the  necessity  for  exer- 
tion, and  a  consequent  restoration  to  health,  proves  a 
blessing  in  disguise.^ 

55.  The  early  part  of  the  day,  —  not  immediately  on 
rising,  however,  but  after  the  system  has  been  toned  up 
by  some  slight  food  and  preliminary  gentle  movements, — 
is  the  best  time  for  hard  work  or  exercise ;  for  then  the 
body  has  had  the  benefit  of  the  rest  of  the  previous  night. 
It  is  not  safe  to  exercise  violently  either  soon  after  eating 
heartily  or  upon  an  empty  stomach,  or  when  the  body  is 
in  a  state  of  exhaustion.  At  one  time  it  w^as  commonly 
believed  that  a  long  walk  before  breakfast  was  especially 
desirable ;  but  the  bad  results  following  this  exercise,  in 
many  instances,  such  as  exhaustion,  faintness,  dyspeptic 
and  nervous  disorders,  have  served  to  dispel  the  idea 
among  careful  observers.      The  gentle  nervous  stimulus 

1  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  woman,  in  her  work  about  a  house, 
each  day  exerts  as  much  muscular  force  as  would  be  expended  in  walking  two 
and  a  half  miles,  but  that  her  proper  exercise  should,  in  fact,  be  equal  to  a 
walk  of  six  miles  a  day.  It  is  stated  that  English  women  frequently  walk 
eight  to  eleven  miles  a  day.  Some  women,  however,  though  in  good  circum- 
stances, insist  upon  doing  more  daily  work  than  a  walk  of  eight  to  eleven 
miles  would  represent.  These  women,  and  those  who  are  poorly  fed  and 
obliged  to  overwork,  seldom  have  healthful  recreations,  and  sooner  or  later 
break  down. 


MtJSCULAR  EXERCISI5.  39 

given  to  the  whole  system  by  a  little  light  food  in  the 
stomach  after  its  long  fast  is  needed  by  the  majority,  and 
would  be  beneficial  to  all,  before  exercising  in  the  early 
morning. 

56.  Varieties  of  Exercise.  —  The  different  forms  of  exer- 
cise may  be  classified  as  follows:  1st.  Those  that  bring 
into  nearly  equal  action  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  as 
swimming,  horse-back  riding,  archery,  fencing,  base  and 
foot  ball,  lawn  tennis,  military  drill,  etc.  2d.  Those  that 
exert  the  muscles  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  princi- 
pally, as  billiards,  rowing,  bowling,  shooting,  croquet,  etc. 
3d.  Those  that  serve  to  develop  principally  the  muscles  of 
the  loiver  part  of  the  body,  as  walking,  dancing,  skating, 
bicycle  riding,  etc. 

Most  of  these  exercises  are  beneficial  to  both  sexes.  As 
respects  the  one  first  above-named,  certainly  every  one 
should  learn  how  to  swim.  Apart  from  its  utility  as  a 
safeguard  to  life,  it  is  the  experience  of  one  of  the  large 
swimming  schools  in  London,  that  carefully  regulated 
swimming  develops  muscle,  and  relieves  to  a  great  extent 
''backache,"  or  pain  in  the  lumbar  muscles.  Horse-back 
riding  also  is  a  valuable  form  of  exercise.  As  Dr.  Holmes 
expresses  it,  "  Saddle-leather  is  in  some  respects  even  pref- 
erable to  sole-leather ;  the  principal  objection  to  it  is  of 
a  financial  character."  So,  too,  gentle  rowing  in  a  good 
boat  not  too  heavily  laden,  walking,  lawn  tennis,  and 
archery,  are  very  desirable  exercises,  (a.) 

57.  A  gymnasium  is  valuable  for  those  persons  who  do 
not  have  opportunities  for  out-door  exercise,  or  who  need 
the  stimulus  of  class  instruction  and  the  companionship  of 
fellow-workers,  accompanied  with  systematic  drill.  But 
too  often  competition  is  carried  so  far  that  the  weak  are 
injured.     To  effect  the  most  good,  the  gymnasium  should 


40  MUSCULAR    EXERCISE. 

have  a  medical  superintendent,  in  order  that  scholars  may 
not  be  taxed  beyond  their  strength,  and  the  exercise  may 
be  adapted  to  the  individual;  that  proper  ventilation 
may  be  maintained,  and  other  hygienic  rules  observed ; 
and  that  assistance  may  be  promptly  given  in  case  of 
accidents.  For  persons  who  cannot  leave  their  houses, 
various  appliances,  such  as  dumb-bells,  Indian  clubs,  row- 
ing machines,  and  rubber  bands  or  cords  are  beneficial.^ 

68.  Persons  too  feeble  to  use  their  own  muscles  in 
exercise  will  obtain  benefit  from  carriage  riding,  the  use 
of  electricity,  or  the  gentle,  daily  rubbing,  pressing,  and 
moving  of  their  muscles  by  another.  This  last  procedure 
is  known  as  massage^  and  is  every  day  becoming  more 
popular  with  invalids.  Where  the  will  is  but  slightly,  if 
at  all  exerted,  as  in  the  above  examples,  the  exercises  are 
known  as  passive. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  have  been  the  motives  for  physical  culture  in  the  past ;  and 

by  what  bad  effects  was  excessive  exercise  said  to  have  been 
followed  ? 

2.  What  are  the  effects  of,  and  what  is  proper  exercise  ? 

3.  How  does  it  affect  the  mental  health,  and  why  ? 

4.  What  is  improper  exercise,  and  what  are  its  effects  ? 

5.  What  is  to  be  said  of  exercise  at  different  ages  ? 

6.  What  of  the  exercise  of  females  ? 

7.  What  of  exercise  in  the  early  morning  ? 

8.  What  of  the  varieties  of  exercise  ? 

9.  What  of  the  gymnasium  ? 

10.  What  is  massage,  and  when  is  it  to  be  employed  ? 


1  Much  good  can  be  accomplished  with  these  appliances,  if  they  are  'prope^'ly 
used;  and,  for  that  matter,  quite  a  gymnasium  may  be  fitted  up  in  a  private 
house  at  a  moderate  cost. 


ANALYSIS. 


41 


ANALYSIS   OF  CHAPTERS    THIRD  AND  FOURTH. 


MUSCLES. 


Anatomy 


r  1.  Number. 

2.  Appearance. 

o    A  ,  (  Superficial. 

3.  Arrangement  |  j^^^ 

4.  Attachment.]  I^^^^^J^; 


II. 

Physiology 


III. 
Hygiene 


5.  Kinds 


6.  Structure 


'  Flexors  and  extensors. 

Abductors  and  adductors. 

Relators. 

Sphincters,  etc. 
^  Muscles  of  expression. 

r  Voluntary  —  f  Composed  of  water, 

XT'^v.-^^^  c  ^i^^'ii^^        common   salt,  cal- 

!     Fibres  &  fibrillae  J    cium  phosphate,  ai- 

'  I    Involuntary —  1     buminous    matter, 

I     Fibres    .: L    J^"d  extractive  mat- 


7.  Associated 
structures . 


■  1.  Properties 


(  Arteries. 
l  Veins. 


'  Tendons. 
Blood-vessels 

Lymphatics. 
vr  (Of  motion. 

"^^^'^^^  I  Of  sensation. 
,Fat. 

C  Contractility. 
J  Sensibility, 
j  Tonicity. 
[  Elasticity, 
r  As  motors. 
2  TT,   ,  J  As  walls  of  protection. 

^     ^^^ 1  As  aiders  of  vital  processes. 

[  To  give  beauty  of  outline. 
^  1.  Nutrition. 

r  Amount. 
1  Time. 
I  Manner. 
L  Kind, 
r  In  sleep. 

.  3.  Rest <  In  amusement.   , 

I  In  change  of  work. 


2.  Exercise 


FAT. 
Quantity.   Location.   Uses.    Sources.    How  increased  and  diminished. 


42 


THE  SKIN. 


Fig.  25. 

Longitudinal  section  of  skin  (partly  diagrammatic),  magnified  about  100  diameters.  Its 
structure  and  contents  (with  the  exception  of  the  lymphatics).  — E,  epidermis; 
D,  dermis  ;  CL,  color  layer  ;  TC,  tactile  corpuscle;  N,  nerve;  V,  vein;  A,  artery; 
CT,  connective  tissue;  F,  adipose  tissue;  HF,  hair  follicle  ;  PT,  perspiratory  tubs 
and  gland  ;  SG,  sebaceous  gland  ;  EP,  erector  pilae  muscle.  H,  a  hair. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE      SKIN. 

69.  The  shin^  or  external  covering  of  the  body,  a  much 
more  important  texture  than  people  ordinarily  believe  it 
to  be,  has  been  likened  to  a  sentinel,  whose  duty  is  to 
guard  the  body  from  attacks  both  from  within  and  without. 
It  is  strong  and  elastic ;  varies  in  smoothness  and  delicacy 
in  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  has  no  less  than  six 
functions.^  It  consists  of  two  distinct  layers^  the  dermis 
and  the  epidermis.^  The  former  is  called  also  the  cutis 
vera  or  true  skin,  and  the  latter  the  cuticle^  the  false  skin, 
or  the  scarf  skin. 

60.  The  dermis^  or  deeper  layer,  is  composed  of  a  dense 
network  of  fibrous  and  elastic  tissue,^  in  the  meshes  of  which 
are  muscular  fibres,*  blood  and  lymphatic  vessels,  nerves, 
sebaceous  and  sweat  glands,  hair  and  hair  follicles.^  The 
surface  of  the  dermis  is  raised  into  prolongations  or  emin- 
ences called  papillae^  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  arranged 
in  groups  or  rows,  producing  the  ridges  and  furrows  notice- 
able upon  the  skin.^     They  are  most  numerous  in  its  most 

1  See  §  73. 

2  By  some,  the  connective  tissue  between  the  muscles  and  dermis  is  spoken 
of  as  a  third  layer,  though  too  closely  blended  with  the  tissues  above  it  to  be 
readily  separated  from  them.  Others  again  make  more  than  three  layers  by  a 
splitting  up  of  the  epidermis.  In  this  way  we  have  what  are  called  the  Mal- 
pighian  and  corneal  layers,  etc. 

3  For  description  of  these  tissues,  see  Introduction. 

4  Muscular  fibres  are  abundant  in  the  skins  of  many  animals,  enabling 
them  to  shake  off  insects  by  a  wrinkling  motion  of  the  hides. 

5  *'  Little  bags  "  or  pouches. 

6  These  ridges  and  furrows  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  means  of  a 
good  magnifying  glass. 


44  THE   SKIN. 

sensitive  parts,  such  as  the  palms  of  the  hands,  where  they 
number  about  35,000  to  the  square  inch.  The  papillae  are 
made  up  in  part  of  connective  tissue,  and  of  terminal 
blood-vessels  arranged  in  loops,  and  of  nerves  in  oval 
enlargements  known  as  "tactile  corpuscles,"  or  "little 
bodies  with  touch-power  " ;  for  in  them  the  sense  of  touch 
resides.^  The  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  papillary  por- 
tion of  the  skin  is  made  apparent  whenever  the  raised 
cuticle  covering  a  blister  is  broken,  and  anything,  even 
air,  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  "  true  skin." 

61.  Underlying  the  dermis,  and  closely  blended  with 
it,  is  the  suh-cutaneous  or  connective  tissue^  which  contains 
blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  nerves,  muscular  fibres,  and 
adipose  tissue.  When  the  normal  amount  of  fat  is  dimin- 
ished, the  skin  becomes  roughened  and  Avrinkled.^ 

62,  The  superficial  layer  of  the  skin,  the  epidermis,  is 
composed  entirely  of  cells,  and  is  devoid  of  blood-vessels 
and  nerves,  but  through  it  pass  hairs  and  the  ducts  of  the 
perspiratory  or  sweat  glands,  and  of  the  sebaceous,  or  oil 
glands,  and  from  it  and  the  dermis  beneath  the  nails  grow. 
The  cells  upon  the  surface  of  the  epidermis,  being  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  external  sources  of 
injury,  become  flattened,  hard,  and  horn-like  in  texture, 
while  the  newly-formed  under-cells,  or  those  in  contact 
with  the  papillae,  are  rounded  and  soft. 


1  In  the  outer  portion  of  the  dermis,  and  below  the  papillae,  other  nerves 
end  in  enlargements,  but  are  there  known  as  Paccinian  corpuscles.  The  nerves 
of  the  skin  are  sometimes  classified  as  follows :  (1)  Nerves  of  Sensation ;  (2) 
Trophic  nerves,  or  those  which  control  the  nourishment  of  the  skin;  (3)  Secre- 
tory nerves,  or  those  that  control  the  action  of  the  glands;  and  (4)  Vasa  Motor 
nerves,  or  the  nerves  which  regulate  the  action  of  the  blood-vessels. 

2  "  Wrinkled  old  age  "  owes  its  appearance  partly  also  to  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  elastic  tissue  natural  to  that  period  of  life. 


THE   SKIN.  45 

63.  Owing  to  attrition  and  chemical  action,  the  outer 
cells  of  the  epidermis  are  almost  constantly  being  removed^ 
while  the  deeper  ones,  formed  from  the  dermis,  are  being 
pushed  forward  to  take  their  place,  growing  harder  and 
flatter  as  they  approach  the  surface.^  Having  no  nerves, 
the  epidermis  is  not  sensitive ;  and,  being  without  blood- 
vessels, cannot  bleed.  It  is  well  adapted,  therefore,  as  a 
covering  and  protection  to  the  sensitive  tissues  beneath; 
and  this  adaptation  is  nicely  adjusted  to  the  demand  for  it 
by  a  proportionate  thickening  of  the  epidermis  according 
as  the  several  parts  of  the  body  are  more  or  less  used,    {a.) 

64.  The  under-cells  contain  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
skin ;  and,  by  the  pigment  so  contained,  and  its  diversified 
arrangement,  are  caused  the  distinctive  variations  in  color 
of  individuals,  families,  and  races.  The  whiteness  of  the 
skin  of  Albinoes  is  due  to  the  absence  of  this  pigment,  while 
"freckles,"  and  the  peculiar  irregular  discoloration  seen 
upon  the  skin  of  so-called  "  leopard  boys,"  are  owing  to 
variations  in  its  quantity,  quality,  or  distribution.  The 
color  of  the  skin  is  due  in  part  also  to  the  blood  circulating 
through  it ;  thus,  an  unusual  quantity  of  red  blood  in  thin 
portions  of  the  skin  causes  it  to  "  blush  "  or  redden,  while 
blood  tinged  by  the  yellow  coloring  matter  of  the  bile 
imparts  a  "jaundiced"  or  yellow  color. 

65.  Classified  as  appendages  of  the  skin  are  the  sweat 
and  sebaceous  glands  (with  their  ducts),  and  the  hair  and 
nails.  In  the  dermis  and  subcutaneous  tissue  are  the 
sweat  glands,  consisting  of  numerous  coils  of  exceedingly 
minute  tubing  ^  of  varying  length  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  fine  network 

1  A  microscopic  examination  of  water  in  which  the  hands  are  washed  will 
almost  always  show  an  abundance  of  epidermal  cells,  even  though  the  water 
itself  seems  quite  clear. 

2  About  37^  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


46 


THE   SKIK. 


of  blood-vessels ;  the  lower  extremity  of  each  coil  being 
closed  and  turned  towards  its  centre.  From  the  blood  in 
these  blood-vessels  the  perspiration  is  being  constantly 
filtered  out  by  the  tubular  sweat  glands.  By  means  of  the 
close  coiling  of  the  lower  portion  of  each  tube,  a  consider- 
able extent  of  gland  surface  is  spread  out  among  the 
terminal  blood-vessels.  The  upper  extremity  of  each 
glandular  coil  is  the  commencement  of  a  perspiratory 
tube.  These  tubes  extend  upwards  in  nearly  a  straight 
direction  through  the  true  skin,  but  in  the  epidermis  pre- 
sent a  number  of  spbal  turns.     They  are  mere  excretory 

ducts,  and  open  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  body.  Their  open- 
ings, together  with  the  outer 
openings  of  the  tubes  of  the 
sebaceous  or  oil  glands,  consti- 
tute the  "pores." 


^m^M^- 


Fig.  26. 
Epidermis  from  the  palm  of  the  hand 
(with  its  pores),  as  viewed    from 
the  under  surface.    Magnified  eight 
diameters. 


66.  Sweat  glands  are  found 
nearly  everywhere  in  the  skin, 
but  are  most  numerous  in  the 
palms,  soles,  and  arm-pits,  where 
they  number  from  2685  to  2736 
to  the  square  inch.  Upon  the 
entire  surface  of  the  body  there 
have  been  estimated  to  be  between  two  and  three  millions, 
and  the  entire  length  of  the  secreting  tubes  is  said  to  be 
about  two  and  a  half  miles.  The  very  great  number  of 
glands,  and  the  coiled  and  twisted  arrangement  by  which 
considerable  length  is  attained  in  minute  spaces,  indicate 
the  great  importance  of  the  work  which  they  have  to  per- 
form, (a.) 

67.    The  function  of  the  perspiratory  glands  is  to  elimi- 
nate the  debris  of  used-up  tissues,  and  by  a  well-balanced 


THE   SKIK.  47 

exudation  of  watery  fluid,  to  keep  the  body  comfortable  in 
the  varying  temperature  and  conditions  to  which  it  is 
exposed.  Most  of  the  perspiration  which  is  brought  to  the 
surface  by  the  sweat  glands  is  immediately  evaporated  in 
the  form  of  an  imperceptible  vapor,  and  is  therefore  termed 
insensible  perspiration,  as  contradistinguished  from  that 
sensible  perspiration  or  sweat,  which  is  the  result  of  vigor- 
ous exercise,  over-heat,  etc. 

68.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  amount  of  per- 
spiration excreted  in  twenty-four  hours  is  from  two  to 
three  pounds,  but  varies  with  the  temperature,  current, 
and  moisture  of  the  air,  the  depressed  or  excited  state  of 
the  nervous  system,  physical  exercise,  etc.,  etc.  Workmen 
in  gas-houses,  furnaces,  iron-Works,  and  other  places  where 
they  are  subjected  to  great  heat,  may  perspire  as  much  as 
three  pints  in  an  hour.  To  prevent  exhaustion,  such  per- 
sons drink  freely  of  water,  or,  better  still,  of  water  con- 
taining oatmeal.  A  hot  and  dry  atmosphere  accelerates 
perspiration,  while  a  moist  or  muggy  one  retards  it ;  and, 
if  warm,  produces  inconvenience  and  sometimes  great  suf- 
fering. It  is  related  of  Chabert,  "  the  lire-king,"  that,  if  the 
air  were  dry,  he  could  enter,  without  discomfort,  a  chamber 
where  the  temperature  was  400°  F.,  but  could  not  endure  a 
moist  atmosphere  of  a  much  lower  temperature.  Perspira- 
tion is  also  impeded  by  cold  and  draughts  of  air.  The 
importance  of  a  free  flow  of  the  perspiration  is  illustrated 
by  the  bad  effects  resulting  from  any  sudden  check  of  it, 
as  in  "  the  catching  of  cold,"  in  fever,  etc.  In  such  cases 
extra  excretory  work  is  thrown  upon  other  organs,  espe- 
cially upon  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  by  which  the  health 
may  become  permanently  impaired. 

69.  The  sebaceous  glands  secrete  an  oily  matter  which 
lubricates  the  skin  and  hair,  and  thus  preserves  their  soft- 


48  THE   SKIN. 

ness  and  pliancy.^  They  are  located  in  the  dermis,  and 
are  either  simple  follicles  or  clusters  of  simple  follicles, 
called  "compound  follicles,"  with  tubes  connecting  the 
several  simple  follicles  of  each  cluster  with  a  common  or 
main  tube.  For  the  most  part  the  central  tubes  open  into 
the  hair  sacs  (Fig.  25) ;  while  simple  follicles,  not  con^ 
nected  with  others,  open  directly  upon  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  and  are  especially  numerous  about  the  face.  In 
some  of  the  follicles,  however,  there  are  fine  downy 
hairs. 

70.  Hairs  are  distributed  more  or  less  abundantly  over 
the  surface  of  the  body .2  Their  bulbs  or  root  enlarge- 
ments are  inserted  either  in  special  hair  sacs  or  follicles,  or, 
in  the  case  of  the  fine  downy  hairs,  in  sebaceous  follicles. 
The  shafts  of  the  former  pass  out  obliquely  through  the 
ducts  of  the  follicles  (Fig.  25).  Each  hair  is  oval  or 
somewhat  flattened,  aud  is  comj)osed  of  a  pith-like  sub- 
stance in  the  centre,  surrounded  by  a  fibrous  tissue,  and 
this  by  a  so-called  cuticle  or  layer  of  epidermal-like  cells.^ 
Hairs  are  well  supplied  with  blood  at  the  base  of  the  hair 
follicles,  and  are  living  tissues,  strong  and  elastic* 


1  In  sebaceous  glands  minute  (microscopic)  animalcula  are  sometimes 
found,  but  are  not  as  frequent  or  as  harmful  as  some  sensational  publications 
would  lead  us  to  believe.  What  are  often  called  "  flesh  worms  "  are  nothing 
more  than  masses  of  fatty  matter  tipped  by  "  black  points  "  or  dirt,  which  has 
adhered  to  them  at  the  mouths  of  the  sebaceous  glands. 

2  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  thin  head  of  hair  contains  90,000  hairs,  while 
a  thick  head  of  hair  has  133,920. 

3  Under  the  microscope  the  sides  of  a  hair  seem  to  be  roughened.  The  hair 
(fur)  of  certain  animals  is  perceptibly  rough  to  the  touch.  Human  hair  may 
become  rough  from  disease.    Very  flat  hair  is  apt  to  curl  like  a  shaving. 

4  It  has  been  found  that  a  hair  ten  inches  long  will  stretch  to  thirteen  inches ; 
and  that  a  hair  stretched  one-fifth  returned  to  within  one-seventeenth  of  its 
original  length;  also,  that  a  single  hair  of  a  boy,  8  years  of  age,  supported  a 
weight  of  7,812  grains;  one  of  a  man  of  22  years,  14,285  grains;  of  57  years, 
22,222  grains. 


THE   SKIN. 


49 


71.  The  hair  has  various  uses.  That  upon  the  head 
and  face  protects  from  cold  and  excessive  heat.  The  eye- 
brows prevent  the  perspiration  from  running  into  the  eyes, 
the  eyelashes  keep  out  dust,  while  the  hairs  at  the  orifices 
of  the  nose  and  ears  protect  those  parts  from  dust,  insects, 
etc.  To  the  hair  follicles,  muscular  fibres  (erector-pilae  ; 
Fig.  25)  are  attached,  Avhich,  under  the  stimulus  of  fear, 
horror,  cold,  etc.,  cause  the  follicles  to  be  more  perpendicu- 
lar, and  thus  the  hair  to  "stand  on  end."  Hair  is  subject 
to  various  diseases  which  may  shorten  its  length,  change 
its  color,  or  destroy  it.  It  is  affected  by  the  same  condi- 
tions as  the  skin,  of  which  it  is  a  part.  («.) 


72.  The  nails  are  modifications  of  the  epidermis,  iden- 
tical in  formation,  but  peculiar  in  appearance  and  manner 
of  growth.  The  nail 
rests  in  a  "  matrix," 
which  is  a  fold  of  the 
dermis,  particularly  rich 
in  papillae,  from  which 
the  nail  cells  are  pro- 
duced. When  nails  are 
destroyed,  new  ones  will 
be  formed  if  the  matrix 
is  uninjured.  Nails  are 
a  support  and  a  defence 
to  the  ends  of  the  fingers 
and  toes,  and  assist  in  the  picking  up  of  small  objects,  and, 
if  healthy  and  in  good  condition,  add  comeliness  to  the 
parts  to  which  they  are  attached.  The  health  of  the  nails 
is  affected  by  local  or  general  diseases.  They  may  become 
rough  or  split  or  marked  by  grooves  or  discolorations,  as 
the  result  of  disease. 


Fig.  27. 

Two  views  of  the  end  of  a  finger.  In  the  first, 
part  of  the  skin  covei'ing  the  base  of  the  nail  is 
cut  and  turned  bacli  to  show  the  base  of  the 
nail.  In  the  second  (a  perpendicular  section), 
the  relations  of  the  nail  to  the  skin,  fat,  muscle, 
and  bone  are  shown. 


50  THE   8KIN. 

73.  The  functions  of  the  skin  are  six  in  number,  —  it  is 
a  covering  and  protector  of  the  external  surface  of  the 
body ;  an  organ  of  sensation ;  an  organ  of  excretion ;  a 
regulator  of  temperature ;  an  organ  of  absorption ;  and 
an  accessory  organ  of  breathing. 

74.  First.  It  is  a  protective  covering.  In  a  good  sized 
man  it  contains  about  seventeen  square  feet  of  surface,  is 
thick  and  strong  upon  those  parts  most  subject  to  pressure 
and  friction,  but  thinner  where  motion  or  greater  elasticity 
is  necessary,  as  on  the  eyelids,  in  the  armpits,  under  the 
knees,  and  over  the  abdominal  organs.  When  covered 
with  hair,  it  becomes  an  especially  strong  protector  to  the 
parts  beneath. 

75.  Second.  Being  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves, 
the  skin  is  also  an  organ  of  sensation^  enabling  us  to  appre- 
ciate all  degrees  and  varieties  of  touch  and  temperature. 
The  value  of  this  sensitiveness  is  especially  appreciated  in 
the  different  trades  and  vocations  of  life-,  and  most  of  all 
when  it  is  diminished  or  lost.  In  a  palsied  limb  it  may 
happen  that  a  severe  frost-bite,  burn,  or  other  injury  will 
even  destroy  the  tissues  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
sufferer.  The  sensibility  of  the  skin  is  greatest  on  the 
pulps  of  the  fingers  and  the  front  of  the  body,  and  least 
in  the  middle  of  the  limbs  and  on  the  back. 

76.  Third.  The  skin  serves  also  as  an  organ  of  excretion^ 
purifying  and  eliminating  from  the  blood  the  waste  pro- 
ducts in  solution  in  the  perspiration.  These  excreta.,  in 
addition  to  the  water,  are  carbonic  acid,  fatty  acids,  ammo- 
nia salts,  etc.  In  disease  there  is  an  effort  to  eliminate 
also  various  other  abnormal  and  injurious  products. 

77.  Fourth.  The  skin  is  the  great  regulator  of  animal 
temperature.     "  Animal  heat "  is  produced  by  the  various 


THE   SKIN.  51 

processes  carried  on  in  the  body.  Though  the  general 
temperature  of  the  human  body  is  about  9S^°  F.,  there  is  a 
normal  variation  within  the  limits  of  health  of  about  1° 
below  and  above  that  point.  Loss  of  heat  is  produced  by 
contact  of  the  body  with  anything  cold,  by  radiation,  and 
through  the  excretions;  but  the  due  regulation  of  the 
bodily  temperature  depends,  in  part,  upon  the  elimination 
of  watery  vapor  by  the  lungs,  but  mainly  upon  the  per- 
spiratory function  of  the  skin.  The  constant  evaporation 
of  the  perspiration  into  the  surrounding  air  is  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  means  whereby  the  surplus  heat  is 
carried  off  and  the  body  kept  at  its  normal  temperature. 
In  health,  whenever  the  body  begins  to  suffer  from  excess 
of  heat,  as,  for  example,  after  violent  exercise,  the  skin 
forthwith  responds  to  the  urgency  of  the  occasion,  and, 
pouring  out  its  due  amount  of  insensible  perspiration,  or 
of  sensible  sweat,  an  adjustment  of  the  temperature  is 
effected,  and  the  proper  standard  preserved.  ^ 

78.  Fifth.  The  skin  is  an  organ  of  absorption.  It  takes 
up  and  passes  through  it  into  the  lymph  and  blood-vessels 
certain  substances  with  which  it  may  come  in  contact.  It 
has  been  found  by  experiment  that  the  body  absorbs  water 
through  the  skin.  («.)  Certain  drugs,  as  strychnine,  qui- 
nine, mercury,  and  belladonna  produce  their  usual  effects 
when  applied  to  the  tender  parts  of  the  skin.  The  rubbing 
in  of  oily  preparations,  ^.e.,  inunction,  has  long  been  used 
to  increase  warmth  and  furnish  nourishment.  Careless 
workmen  in  lead  works,  painters,  and  mirror-silverers  are 
often  poisoned  by  lead  or  mercury  absorbed  through  the 


1  The  value  of  the  skin  as  a  regulator  of  temperature  is  sometimes  strikingly- 
shown  when,  from  "catching  cold,"  the  body  is  alternately  chilly  and  hot.  A 
proper  bath  taken  early  in  this  disordered  condition  produces  a  "  sweat,"  and 
the  equable  normal  temperature  is  regained. 


52  THE   SKIN. 

skin.  The  evil  effects  which  have  been  stated  to  result 
from  cosmetics  and  hair  dyes  are  due,  of  course,  to  the 
absorption  of  harmful  material.  Friction  increases  the 
rapidity  of  absorption. 

79.  Sixth.  Lastly,  the  skin,  by  virtue  of  its  powers  of 
absorption  and  excretion,  serves  as  an  accessory  organ 
of  breathing.  It  absorbs  a  small  amount  of  oxygen,  and 
gives  out  a  larger  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  performing, 
it  is  estimated,  from  one-fortieth  to  one-fiftieth  of  the 
respiratory  function. 

80.  Owing  to  the  extent,  structure,  and  variety  of 
functions  of  the  skin,  its  condition  has  much  to  do  with  the 
general  health.  The  skin,  lungs,  liver,  bowels,  and  kidneys 
are  allies  in  physiological  action.  All  excrete  waste  ma- 
terial, each  in  its  own  way.  If,  therefore,  from  any  cause, 
the  normal  action  of  any  one  or  more  of  these  organs  is 
interfered  with,  extra  and  unnatural  work  is  thrown  upon 
the  others,  and  the  excessive  excretions  produce  discom- 
fort, and  often  inflammatory  disease  of  greater  or  less 
danger.^  The  skin  is  also  i7itimately  connected  with  the 
internal  organs  by  nerves  and  vessels.  Hence,  if  it  be 
severely  injured,  as  by  an  extensive  burn,  these  organs 
may  become  inflamed  and  death  result.  Conversely,  be- 
cause of  the  same  intimate  connection,  or  "  sympathy,"  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  indigestion  often  causes  eruptions 
to  appear  upon  the  skin. 


1  At  the  coronation  of  Pope  Leo  the  Tenth,  a  little  boy,  representing  an 
angel,  whose  skin  was  gilded,  died  as  the  result  of  stoppage  of  the  "pores." 
In  like  manner,  animals,  varnished  all  over,  have  died. 


THE   SKIN.  53 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  the  skin  and  name  its  different  layers. 

2.  Locate  and  describe  the  dermis. 

3.  What  are  the  papillae,  and  what  peculiar  power  resides  in  them? 

4.  Where  is  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  and  what  does  it  contain  ? 

5.  Where  is  the  epidermis,  of  what  composed,  and  what  passes 

through  it? 

6.  To  what  is  the  color  of  the  skin  owing  ? 

7.  Of  what  use  is  the  epidermis,  and  how  is  it  adapted  to  its  use  ? 

8.  AVhat  are  the  appendages  of  the  skin  ? 

9.  Describe  the  sweat  glands  and  their  functions? 

10.  What   affects  the   flow  of  perspiration,  and,  if  checked,  what 

follows  ? 

11.  Describe  the  sebaceous  glands  and  their  uses. 

12.  Describe  the  hair  and  its  uses ;  the  nails  and  their  uses. 

13.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  skin  ?     Describe  each. 

14.  Explain  why  the  skin  and  other  excretory  organs  are  mutually 

affected  by  the  condition  of  each  other  ? 

15.  What  connection  has  the  condition  of  the  skin  with  the  general 

health? 


CHAPTER    VI. 
BATHINO. 

81.  Bathing  has  at  all  times  been  considered  of  value, 
though  its  full  importance  as  a  sanitary  measure  is  not 
even  yet  generally  appreciated.  The  bathing  establish- 
ments of  the  Ancients  were  many  and  magnificent,  and 
were  patronized  by  multitudes  daily,  partly  for  health, 
but  largely  because  bathing  in  them  was  inexpensive, 
and  the  baths  were  luxuriously  appointed.  In  Eastern 
countries,  bathing  has  always  been  a  religious  rite.  From 
time  to  time  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  diversion  by  the 
devotees  of  fashion.  But  the  large  amount  of  waste  mate- 
rial thrown  off  by  the  skin,  and  the  continual  lodgement 
upon  it  of  foreign  matter,  should  make  bathing  both  a  reli- 
gious duty  and  a  perpetual  fashion. 

82.  It  assists  the  skin  in  the  discharge  of  its  functions^ 
and  removes  dirt,  odors,  and  poisonous  materials.  Perspira- 
tion, ordinarily  a  harmless  fluid,  if  allowed  to  accumulate 
upon  the  skin,  mingled  with  dirt  of  various  kinds,  clogs 
the  pores,  and  may  even  undergo  chemical  changes,  and 
become  an  irritant,  or  produce  poisonous  matter  which 
may  be  absorbed  into  the  system. 

According  to  the  eminent  English  sanitarian,  Mr.  Chad- 
wick,  "aS'Hw  cleanliness  augments  the  nutritive  effects  of  food  y^ 

1  He  adds:  "It  should  therefore  be  preached  to  the  poor,  as  an  additional 
inducement  to  skin  cleanliness,  that  the  same  food  which  is  required  to  make 
four  children  that  are  kept  dirty  thrive,  will  serve  to  make  five  thrive  whose 
skins  are  daily  washed  and  kept  clean." 


BATHING,  55 

In  other  words,  the  assimilation  of  new  materials  is  pro- 
moted by  a  more  thorough  getting  rid  of  the  old. 

Again,  bathing  keeps  the  pores  open,  promotes  excre- 
tion, and  thus  renders  valuable  aid  in  regulating  bodily 
temperature,  and  in  warding  off  colds,^  fevers,  skin  erup- 
tions,2  and  internal  disorders.  On  the  other  hand,  various 
skin  and  contagious  diseases  owe  their  origin  to,  and  spread 
most  rapidly  among  the  slovenly  in  the  crowded  portions 
of  cities. 

S3,  The  kind  of  bathing  to  be  selected,  and  how  and 
when  to  bathe,  depend  upon  the  age  and  health,  the  pecu- 
liarities and  occupation  of  the  individual,  the  state  of  the 
weather,  etc.  The  ordinary  water  baths  are  classified  as  to 
temperature  as  hot,  warm,  tepid,  temperate,  cool,  and  cold.^ 
The  daily  use  of  temperate  and  tepid  baths  agrees  with  most 
persons,  but  it  is  desirable  to  become  accustomed  to  cool 
water  if  we  wish  the  tonic  effects  of  bathing.  This  can 
often  be  accomplished  by  gradually  lowering  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bath  a  little  each  time,  or  by  following  up  a 
sponging  with  tepid  water  by  one  with  cool  water.  It 
should,  however,  be  quickly  performed,  and  in  a  warm 
room,  and  be  accompanied  by  a  brisk  rubbing  of  the  skin 


1  It  is  believed,  by  many  medical  authorities,  that  proper  and  systematic 
bathing  will,  to  a  great  extent,  prevent  or  cure  "  catarrhs  "  or  colds  in  the 
head,  throat,  or  lungs.  Dr.  C.  R.  Agnew,  after  twenty-nine  years'  practice  in 
New  York  City,  writes  :  "  Inattention  to  health  laws  produces  defects  in 
tissue  building.  There  is  a  morbid  sensibility  of  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes. I  arrive  at  the  causes  by  the  result  of  treatment,  for  I  find,  that 
by  proper  shoeing,  open  fires,  the  cold  bath  in  the  morning  on  rising,  fol- 
lowed by  brisk  rubbing  with  a  pair  of  English  bath-mittens  and  the  use  of  the 
strap,  and  by  the  exposure  of  the  skin  to  the  air,  very  many  times  catarrhs 
disappear  without  any  local  treatment  whatever." 

2  It  is  the  testimony  of  many  fat  persons,  that  systematic  bathing  prevents 
and  cures  chafing  of  the  skin  much  better  than  powders,  ointments,  etc. 

3  Hot,  98°  to  112°  F.  Warm,  92°  to  98°  F.  Tepid,  85°  to  92°  F.  Temperate, 
75°  to  85°  F.    Cool,  60°  to  75°  F.    Cold,  30°  to  60°  F. 


56  BATHING. 

with  the  hands,  a  towel,  mittens  of  crash  towelling,  or  a 
flesh-briish.i  In  the  case  of  old  and  feeble  persons,  whose 
circulation  is  sluggish,  tepid  water  alone  should  be  used, 
and  friction  may  be  applied  over  a  loose  flannel  gown  put 
on  the  dampened  body.  Comfort  may  sometimes  be  de- 
rived from  friction,  especially  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
body,  with  mittens  merely  dampened,  or  by  dry  rubbing 
with  mittens  or  with  the  hands. 

84.  For  vert/  young  children^  a  sponge  or  dip  bath  of 
tepid  water  is  desirable,  given  each  day  or  alternate  day. 
But  the  child  should  gradually  become  accustomed  to  cool 
water;  and  after  all  baths,  its  skin  should  be  thoroughly 
but  gently  rubbed,  dried,  and  warmed,  for  little  children 
lose  heat  rapidly,  and  imperfect  drying  increases  the  lia- 
bility to  catch  cold.  Older  children  in  health,  who  exer 
cise  in  the  open  air,  may  bathe  to  advantage  daily  in  even 
very  cool  water,  if  the  bath  be  a  short  one,  and  followed 
by  brisk  friction.  Many  adults  are  benefited  by  such  daily 
bathing,  and  persons  who  work  in  a  dusty  atmosphere  may 
need  even  more  than  one  bath  per  day.  If,  from  any  cause, 
the  entire  body  cannot  be  bathed,  the  bathing  of  the  head, 
neck,  chest,  and  feet  will  generally  afford  comfort  and 
strength. 

85.  Hot  and  cold  baths  are  to  be  used  with  caution,  and 
especially  by  persons  with  heart  disease,  or  far  advanced 
in  consumption,  or  when  greatly  fatigued.  Hot-water  baths 
are  more  cleansing  than  cold  water,  but  are  generally  more 
relaxing,  and  have  not  the  tonic  properties  of  the  latter. 

1  Such  bathiug,  lasting  only  from  five  to  eight  minutes,  is  valuable  in  the 
morning,  on  rising,  for  the  majority  of  people.  Sometimes  a  few  drops  of 
ammonia-water,  or  some  salt  added  to  the  water  of  a  bath,  renders  it  more 
stimulating.  Children  and  feeble  persons  have  repeatedly  become  accustomed 
to  cool  and  even  cold  baths  by  gradual  training  as  above. 


BATHING.  5T 

Once  a  week  is  often  enough  to  use  a  hot-water  bath. 
Frequently  resorted  to,  danger  may  result  from  over- 
stimulation and  subsequent  depression  of  the  heart  and 
nervous  system.  Individuals  in  robust  health  may  enjoy 
frequent  bathing  in  cold  water,  even  in  cool  rooms,  if  the 
bathing  occupies  but  a  short  time,  and  is  followed  by  brisk 
friction,  but  the  practice  is  attended  with  risk.^ 

86.  The  value  of  a  bath  is  determined  by  its  ultimate 
effects^  and  is  influenced  largely  by  the  time  of  day  in 
which  it  is  taken.  The  immediate  effect  of  very  cool  or 
cold  water  applied  to  the  skin  is  to  chill  the  surface  of  the 
body  (the  "first  shiver"),  lowering  its  temperature,  pro- 
ducing pallor  by  driving  the  blood  inwards,  and  through 
contraction  of  the  skin  muscles,  especially  those  attached 
to  the  hair  follicles,  giving  rise  to  the  appearance  called 
"  goose  skin."  If  bathing  be  now  unduly  prolonged,  the 
secondary  effects  (the  "second  shiver")  appear,  i.e.  marked 
chilliness,  lassitude,  and  in  some  instances  great  prostration. 

87.  The  first  effect  of  a  warm  hath  is  to  quicken  the 
pulse  and  respiration,  and  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
blood,  and  bring  it  to  the  surface,  making  the  skin  glow. 
Following  this  effect  are  chilly  sensations,  and  an  appear- 
ance of  "goose  skin,"  and,  unless  the  bather  finishes  his 
bath,  or  moves  about  actively,  he  is  liable  to  catch  oold, 
especially  if  bathing  in  a  cool  room.  Hot  water  applied 
to  the  skin  promptly  stimulates  it,  and  is  as  promptly  fol- 
lowed by  chilliness,  lassitude,  and  prostration  if  the  bather 
is  not  robust  and  active,  or  the  bath-room  is  cool. 

1  There  are  people,  undoubtedly,  who  can  break  the  ice  in  ponds,  and 
plunge  in  with  impunity,  but  the  majority  of  persons  cannot.  Sometimes 
bathing  must  be  so  nicely  adapted  to  the  individual's  needs,  that  only  a  physi- 
cian can  decide  what  kind  it  must  be,  and  how  and  when  it  is  to  be  resorted  to. 


58  BATHING. 

88.  After  all  kinds  of  bathing  there  should  be  reac- 
tion or  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  nature  to  raise  or 
lower  the  temperature,  as  the  case  may  require,  to  the 
normal  point.  If  the  "reaction"  is  well  marked,  the 
bather  feels  generally  better,  the  skin  glows,  the  mind  is 
clearer,  appetite  is  increased,  etc.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
result  of  a  bath  is  depression,  chilliness,  paleness  of  the 
skin,  etc.,  the  bathing  has  been  improper,  and  may  induce 
disease  of  the  internal  organs. 

Proper  bathing  should  tone  up  the  system  by  increas- 
ing the  force  of  the  respiration  and  circulation,  and  by 
strengthening  the  nerve  power.  Just  as  some  require 
vigorous,  and  others  gentle  exercise,  some  a  cold  and 
others  a  warm  climate,  so  for  some  the  cold,  and  for 
others  the  warm  bath  is  more  desirable. 

89.  As  to  the  times  for  hathing^  —  though  very  strong 
and  healthy  persons  may,  with  impunity,  bathe  at  almost 
any  time,  and  in  water  of  any  bearable  temperature,  —  yet, 
for  the  majority,  it  is  not  prudent  to  bathe  in  hot  or  cold 
water  before  breakfast,  as  at  that  time  the  bodily  powers 
are  weakest ;  or  to  take  a  prolonged  bath  in  water  of  even 
moderate  temperature  when  fatigued,  or  just  before,  or  just 
after  a  hearty  meal  or  unusual  exercise.  About  11  a.m.  is 
a  suitable  time  for  most  persons.  Feeble  people,  however, 
who  catch  cold  easily,  can  generally  bathe  more  safely  just 
before  going  to  bed.  After  bathing,  they  need  extra 
warm  bed-clothing,  but  should  not  have  enough  to  pro- 
duce sweating.^ 

1  At  the  seaside,  only  the  hardiest  should  attempt  an  early  "  morning  dip  in 
the  surf."  Many  persons  are  there  injured  hy  hathing  very  soon  after  a  hearty 
meal  of  clams,  fish,  etc.  Such  food  needs  strong  digestive  powers  and  ample 
time  for  digestion.  This  process  is  interfered  with  by  such  hathing,  and  blood 
is  diverted  in  increased  quantity  into  weak  blood-vessels,  causing  sometimes 
apoplexy  and  death. 


BATHING.  59 

90.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  fresh-water  baths,  there 
are  salt  or  sea-water  baths,  mineral  baths,  and  other  baths 
resorted  to  for  cleanliness,  or  as  means  of  nourishment  or 
for  their  supposed  medicinal  eifects.  Such  are  the  Russian 
or  vapor  bath,^  the  Turkish  or  hot-air  ^  bath,  and  the  cold- 
air,  sun,  broth,  and  even  mud  and  blood  baths. 

91.  Salt-water  bathing  has  greater  tonic  effects  than 
fresh  water.  At  the  sea-shore  the  air  also  contains  par- 
ticles of  salt.  There,  too,  are  new  scenes  and  surroundings, 
and  the  water  dashing  with  force  against  the  body,  gives 
occasion  to  vigorous,  muscular  exercise  and  social  hilarity. 
All  this  exercise,  combined  with  the  stimulating  properties 
of  the  salt  Avater  itself,  tends  greatly  to  quicken  the  cir- 
culation, and  to  add  value  to  the  bath.  But  to  obtain  all 
the  good  effects,  the  bather  should  first  thoroughly  wet  the 
head  and  shoulders,  then  dash  into  the  water,  move  briskly 
about,  and  come  out  before  feeling  tired  or  chilly.  He 
should  then  rub  dry  and  dress  quickly.^ 

92.  Mineral  baths  are  baths  of  water  containing  various 
natural  or  artificial  mineral  salts.  Certain  mineral  springs 
— those  of  Arkansas  and  West  Virginia  for  example  — are 
much  resorted  to  by  invalids. 

93.  The  Turkish  bath  is  a  valuable  method  of  cleansing 
the  body  and  "  equalizing  the  circulation,"  and  is  generally 
preferred  to  the  Russian  bath,  where  the  air  is  hot  and  moist. 
But  after  the  bath,  the  bather  should  remain  in  the  waiting- 

1  100°  to  130°  F.        2  110°  to  200°  F. 

3  Salt  water  being  more  dense  than  fresh,  is  much  easier  to  float  and  swim 
in,  and  is  for  this  reason  jiref erred  by  bathers.  The  weight  of  the  human 
body  in  life,  with  the  lungs  healthy  and  inflated,  is  generally  less  than  the  same 
bulk  of  water,  hence,  it  need  not  sink  in  either  fresh  or  salt  water.  Sometimes 
persons  do  sink  because  they  become  alarmed,  and,  in  their  fright,  fail  to  in- 
flate the  lungs,  but  raise  the  arms,  thereby  submerging  the  mouth  and  nostrils. 


60  BATHING. 

room  for  a  considerable  time  before  venturing  into  the  outer 
air,  and  should  then  be  well  wrapped  up,  and  should  not 
expose  himself  to  draughts  by  standing  on  street  corners, 
riding  in  open  vehicles,  etc.,  but  may,  to  advantage,  take 
a  moderate  walk.^ 

94.  The  Ancients  esteemed  sun  baths  for  their  remedial 
effects,  and  had  places  assigned  in  their  gardens  and  build- 
ings where  the  body  could  be  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  (a.) 
At  the  present  time,  much  value,  in  certain  quarters,  is 
attached  to  the  sun  bath.^  In  some  parts  of  Germany, 
mud  baths  are  used  for  their  supposed  medicinal  effects. 
So  milk,  blood,  broth,  oil,  etc.,  are  in  some  places  applied 
to  the  skin  as  nourishing  agents.  Inunction  with  oil  or 
vaseline  after  a  bath  is  known  as  a  "  Roman  bath,"  and  is 
sometimes  of  value  in  softening  harsh  skins  and  increasing 
warmth.3 

95.  Soap  is  almost  always  necessary  as  an  adjunct  of 
bathing  to  remove,  by  its  chemical  action,  greasy  particles, 
but  the  oftener  we  bathe  the  less  will  soap  be  needed.  Soap 
should  be  of  the  very  best  quality.  Poor  soaps,  containing 
an  excess  of  alkali,  made  from  poor  fats  or  oils,  or  contain- 
ing impurities, — such  as  have  been  found  by  investigation 
with  the  microscope,  viz.,  small  pieces  of  bone,  decaying 

1  It  is  astonishing  how  different  one  feels  after  a  Turkish  bath  properly- 
given.  Mapother  states,  that  in  the  East,  where  the  baths  are  very  thorough, 
and  are  accompanied  by  much  shampooing  and  friction,  the  "  skin  of  only  one 
week's  date  when  collected  is  often  as  large  as  one's  fist."  Sidney  Smith,  in  a 
letter  from  a  hot  bath  in  Germany,  says :  "  They  have  already  scraped  enough 
off  me  to  make  a  curate." 

2  Some  institutions,  as  the  New  York  Hospital  and  the  Hospital  for  Crippled 
Children,  have  their  Solaria  or  sun-rooms,  in  which  certain  feeble  persons  are 
placed  each  day. 

3  The  South-Sea  Islanders  are  said  to  anoint  the  body  freely  with  the  oil  of 
the  cocoanut  before  and  after  bathing  in  the  sea.  It  is  said  to  increase  their 
powers  of  endurance  in  the  water. 


BATHING.  61 

connective  tissue,  and  even  pus  cells,  —  will  irritate  the 
skin  and  produce  eruptions.^  Soaps  made  of  good  animal 
fat  and  potash,  or  borax,  good  "  castile  "  soap  for  example, 
or  those  made  of  vegetable  fats,  as  olive, .  almond,  palm, 
etc.,  are  the  best. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  bathing  important  to  health  ? 

2.  Upon  what  do  the  times,  manner,  and  hours  of  bathing  depend  ? 

3.  What  is  the  proper  bathing  for  diiferent  ages  ? 

4.  What  effects  follow  proper  and  what  improper  bathing? 

5.  What  as  to  cold  and  warm  water  respectively? 

6.  What  are  the  best  times  for  bathing  ? 

7.  How  are  water  baths  classified,  and  what  can  you  say  of  the  several 

kinds  ? 

8.  What  other  baths  are  there,  and  what  can  you  say  of  them? 

9.  What  can  you  say  about  soap? 


1  Among  the  very  poor,  common  laundry  soaps  are  frequently  used  for 
toilet  purposes.  Some  of  these  soaps  are  injurious.  The  demand  for  "  cheap 
articles  "  has  brought  into  the  market  many  toilet  soaps,  too  cheap  sometimes 
to  be  reliable. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

CLOTHING. 

96.  When  the  body  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  lower 
than  its  own,  heat  is  abstracted  from  it  by  radiation,  by 
evaporation  of  surface  moisture,  and  by  conduction  or 
direct  contact  with  the  air.  The  great  object  of  clothing 
is  to  prevent  this  loss.  Clothing  not  only  hinders  too 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  body,  but  being,  together 
with  the  warmed  air  confined  between  it  and  the  body, 
non-conducting,  a  loss  of  heat  from  direct  contact  with 
the  outer  air  and  other  cold  objects  is  avoided,  and  radia- 
tion is  materially  checked.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  bear 
more  easily  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  especially 
those  of  us  who  are  delicate  and  sensitive.^ 

97.  The  retention  of  animal  heat,  besides  being  essen- 
tial to  comfort,  is  valuable  also  as  an  economizer  of  the 
natural  forces.  An  exhausting  expenditure  of  nervous 
and  muscular  energy  to  create  animal  heat  is  thereby 
avoided,  and  the  food,  instead  of  being  used  up  as  fuel  in 
supplying  a  constant  waste,  is  saved  for  the  construction 
and  repair  of  tissue.  The  bearing  of  this  upon  the  more 
legitimate  demands  for  nervous  and  muscular  force  must 
not  be  overlooked.      It  is  well  known  that  both  human 


1  "The  best  way  then  to  avoid  catching  cold,  although  it  may  seem  a 
paradox,  is  not  to  he  too  much  afraid  of  cold.  Let  one's  accustomed  exercise 
not  be  interrupted  because  it  is  damp,  or  even  rains.  Let  these  conditions  be 
met  by  appropriate  clothing,  and  let  the  feet  be  well  protected  by  strong 
shoes."  —  Physiology  for  Practical  Use.    Hinton. 


CLOTHING.  63 

beings  and  animals,  when  warm,  require  less  food  and  can 
do  better  work  than  when  chilly  or  cold.^ 

98.  The  non-conducting  properties  of  clothing,  and  of 
the  confined  air  under  it,  render  it  also  a  protection  to 
the  body  from  external  heat.  Other  objects  of  clothing 
are  to  protect  the  skin  from  dust  and  external  sources  of 
injury,  and  particularly  from  the  injurious  influences  of  the 
winds,  damp  air,  rain,  hail,  and  snow,  and  from  contact 
with  poisonous  substances.  Of  clothing  as  a  covering  and 
an  ornament  of  the  body  mention  also  may  be  made. 

99.  What  constitutes  proper  and  improper  clothing  is  a 
matter  for  careful  consideration.  Nature  provides  the 
inferior  animals  with  a  natural  covering  that  is  beautiful, 
complete,  and  admirably  adapted  for  varying  seasons  and 
climates ;  but  God-like  man,  in  this  as  in  other  respects, 
is  left  with  a  power  of  choice  that  has  for  its  consequences 
life  or  death,  a  blessing  or  a  curse. 

We  have  already  seen  i\i2it  freedom  of  movement  is  indis- 
pensable in  the  various  forms  of  muscular  exercise,  and  in 
the  performance  of  vital  processes.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  any  clothing  which  interferes  with  this  freedom  is 
strictly  to  be  avoided. 


1  "Our  clothing  is  merely  an  equivalent  for  a  certain  amount  of  food  ;  the 
more  warmly  we  are  clad  the  less  urgent  becomes  the  appetite  for  food, 
because  the  loss  of  heat  by  cooling  and  consequently  the  amount  of  heat  to  be 
supplied  by  food  is  diminished."  —  Libbig. 

"Warm  clothes  are  as  desirable  in  winter  as  are  sufficient  supplies  of  food, 
and  to  a  great  extent  these  are  interchangeable ;  the  well-fed  person  with- 
stands cold  well,  and  needs  but  light  clothing  compared  to  the  ill-fed  person, 
who  must  be  warmly  clad.  .  .  .  The  hybernating  animals,  as  the  hedge-hog, 
the  mole,  and  the  viper  or  the  frog,  could  not  maintain  themselves  alive  on 
the  material  stored  up  in  the  body,  if  they  did  not  also  locate  themselves  so 
that  their  heat  is  not  readily  radiated  away."—  The  Maintenance  of  Health . 

FOTHERGILL. 


64  CLOTHING. 

100.  Heavy  or  tightly-fitting  head  coverings  overheat 
the  scalp  and  exclude  the  air.  Their  pressure  obstructs 
the  blood  supply  and  the  free  action  of  the  nerves,  induc- 
ing headache  and  baldness.  Tight  cravats^  collars^  and 
hands  press  upon  the  windpipe  and  the  important  blood- 
vessels, nerves,  and  other  structures  of  the  neck,  thereby 
impeding  the  passage  of  air,  blood,  and  nerve  currents, 
and  producing  discomfort,  a  sense  of  fullness  in  the  head, 
headache,  disturbance  of  vision,  etc.  Says  a  writer: 
"Some  years  ago  many  British  soldiers  fell  victims  to 
close  military  stocks,  which,  obstructing  the  easy  return 
of  the  blood  from  the  head,  produced  cerebral  congestions 
and  apoplexy." 

101.  The  shoulders  should  bear  a  large  part  of  the 
weight  of  clothing ;  but  the  jDressure  of  arm-hole  seams  of 
outer  garments  and  the  shoulder  bands  of  under  clothing 
upon  the  arms  below  the  shoulder  joints  hinder  the  free 
play  of  those  important  members,  and  are  obstructions  to 
proper  muscular  exercise. 

102.  The  normal  movements  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and 
other  organs  are  disturbed  whenever  the  free  movements 
of  the  ribs  are  restrained  by  tight  coats,  corsets,  vests,  or 
bands.  («.)  Such  compression,  more  than  any  other, 
deranges  the  vital  processes,  producing  suffering  which 
is  often  referred  to  other  causes.  Among  its  effects 
are  lassitude,  headache,  cold  feet,  shortness  of  breath  on 
exercising,  dyspepsia,  faintness,  many  derangements  of 
the  functions  of  internal  organs,  and  sometimes  deformities 
of  the  chest,  and,  in  persons  of  weak  lungs,  consumption.^ 

1  Persons  who  wear  tight  clothing  about  the  chest  seldom  admit  the  fact 
any  more  than  they  will  confess  other  sins.  A  simple  experiment,  however, 
will  convict  the  sinner.  It  is  well  known  to  medical  examiners  of  life  insur- 
ance companies,  and  for  the  army  and  navy,  that  the  measurement  around  the 


OLOTHING.  65 

103.  Sometimes  clothing  is  held  in  place  by  very  tight 
belts,  which  impede  the  free  movements  of  the  abdominal 
organs,  and  cause  various  disorders.  Elastic  bands  in 
garters  and  shoe-tops  are  sometimes  so  tight  as  to  affect 
seriously  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  parts  pressed 
upon. 

104.  No  articles  of  dress  need  to  be  so  nicely  adjusted, 
perhaps,  for  the  comfort  of  the  individual  as  hoots  and 
shoes,^    If  too  large  they  cause  discomfort,  loss  of  temper, 


Fig.  28. 
Vertical  section  of  right  foot,  showing  the  arches  and  the  relations  of  the  various 
stiucturee.  —  B,  bones;  M,  muscles;  T,  tendons;  F,  fat;  C,  connective  tissue; 
BL,  blood-vessels. 

corns,  bunions,  etc. ;  if  too  small  they  do  all  this  and 
more.  They  interfere  with  muscular  exercise,  cause  cold 
feet,  pain,  and  deformity.  («.)      But  so  imperative  and 

middle  of  the  chest,  even  with  the  clothes  on,  should  show  at  least  two  inches 
difference  between  the  chest  expanded  by  full  inspiration  and  contracted  by 
forced  expiration.  The  difference,  in  health,  is  from  2  to  4  inches,  the  average 
being  about  3.  Now,  a  chest  that  expands  (after  being  emptied  as  far  as 
possible  of  air)  only  li  to  IJ  inches  with  tight  garments  on,  will  often  expand 
2i  to  3\  inches  with  the  garments  removed.  This  last  degree  of  expansion 
is  the  normal  one,  and  any  garment  that  lessens  it  is  too  tight. 

1  "It  is  said  that  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  being  questioned  as  to  the  most 
essential  requisite  of  a  soldier's  clothing,  replied,  'a  good  pair  of  shoes.' 
What  next  ?  '  A  spare  pair  of  good  shoes  ' ;  and  even  thirdly,  *  a  spare  pair 
of  soles.'  "  —Lectures  on  Public  Health.    Dr.  Mapothbr. 


66 


CLOTHLNG. 


universally  submitted  to  are  the  regulations  of  fashion, 
that  it  is  only  with  considerable  difficulty,  in  spite  of  our 
boasted  enlightenment,  that  proper  shoes  and  boots  can 
be  bought.^ 

105.  In  shoes  modelled  upon  lasts  of  wrong  shape  the 
weight  is  thrown  upon  or  toward  the  outer  side  of  the 
foot,  instead  of  being  borne,  as  it  should  be,  directly  over 
a  line  drawn  from  the  middle  of  the  heel  to  the  middle 
of  the  big  toe.  (Fig.  1.)  If  to  such  shoes  high  heels  are 
added,  and  especially  if  they  are  near  the  middle  of  the 


Fig.  29. 
A,  normal  foot,  proper  position  of  toes  ;   B,  normal  foot,  with  an  outline  of  the 
front  part  of  an  improper  shoe  ;  C,  toes  crowded  out  of  position  as  result  of 
wearing  such  an  improper  shoe. 

soles,  an  unnatural  mincing  gait,  not  unattended  with 
danger,  is  the  result.  The  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown 
forward  upon  the  toes,  the  ligaments  of  the  various  joints 
are  strained,  especially  those  of  the  spinal  column,  knees, 
ankles,  and  toes.     The  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  leg  are 


1  At  the  present  time  proper  boots  and  shoes  are  made  "to  order  "  by  some 
"anatomical  boot  and  shoe  makers,"  but  are  generally  too  expensive  for 
ordinary  use.  Ready-made  foot  coverings  generally  follow  the  fashion,  and  if 
found  properly  constructed  are  almost  sure  to  be  "out  of  style." 


CLOTHING.  67 

deprived  of  their  important  share  of  work,  and  overriding 
and  other  deformities  of  the  toes  are  produced.  In  some 
instances  important  tendons  which  pass  around  the  outer 
ankles  have  been  thrown  out  of  their  grooves,  and  lame- 
ness has  resulted. 

106.  Boots  and  shoes  should  fit  the  feet  snugly, 
especially  over  the  instep,  but  should  allow  free  move- 
ments of  the  various  joints.  They  should  have  broad 
soles,  low  and  broad  heels,  should  not  cramp  the  toes, 
should  be  hollowed  out  but  little  if  at  all  on  the  inner 


Fig.  30.  Fig.  31. 

An  improper  shoe.  A  proper  shoe. 

side,  and  should  be  so  shaped  that  the  weight  of  the  body 
may  be  borne  where  nature  intended  it  should  be.  These 
simple  requisites  Avould  give  us  sensible,  comfortable, 
aye  I  and  good-looking  foot  coverings. 

107.  The  quantity  of  clothing  should"  be  sufficient  to 
keep  the  body  comfortably  warm,  and  should  be  increased 
or  diminished  with  the  change  of  the  season  or  of  the 
temperature.  It  is  important,  indeed,  that  the  body 
should  become  used  to  the  slight  changes  in  temperature 


68  CLOTHING. 

SO  repeatedly  occurring  day  after  day;  but  the  practice 
of  '^  hardening^ ^  hy  exposure  (as  is  done,  for  example, 
with  the  limbs  of  little  children)  is  often  attended  with 
danger.^  Neither  is  it  prudent  to  throw  aside  warm 
clothing  before  the  actual  onset  of  warm  weather,  or  to 
delay  putting  it  on  till  cold  weather  has  far  advanced. 

108.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much  clothing  has  also  its 
bad  effects.  It  induces  free  perspiration,  which,  retained 
in  contact  with  the  skin,  proves  an  irritant.  The  skin, 
from  being  unaccustomed  to  the  stimulating  effects  of  a 
tonic  atmosphere,  becomes  susceptible  to  very  ordinary 
changes  in  temperature.  Hence,  persons  who  are  in  the 
habit  of  wearing  thick  wrappings  about  the  neck,  such  as 
tippets,  fur  collars,  etc.,  are  very  liable  to  throat  affections, 
especially  if  the  clothing  should  be  removed  where  there 
is  any  draught  of  air.^ 

As  far  as  possible,  clothing  should  cover  all  parts  of  the 
body  equally.  Hence,  padding  a  part  of  the  clothing, 
while  other  portions  are  made  quite  thin,  is  objectionable. 
So,  too,  "full  dress,"  in  the  fashionable  sense,  is  not  full 
enough  in  a  cold  room,  or  on  going  out  of  an  overheated 
room  in  cold  weather.  Warmth,  however,  depends  more 
upon  the  material  and  structure  of  the  clothing  than  upon 
the  quantity. 


1  Proper  care  of  the  skin,  by  systematic  bathing  and  well-regulated  cloth- 
ing, will  in  reality  "harden,"  while  exposure  of  tender  skins  is  dangerous  to 
health  and  life. 

2  "A  regiment  of  infantry,  according  to  Baron  Percy,  being  on  their  march 
in  hot  and  stormy  weather,  the  soldiers  became  heated  and  out  of  breath. 
The  colonel  permitted  them  to  take  off  their  stocks.  Soon  afterwards  they 
entered  a  gorge  of  the  Vosges,  exposed  to  the  north-west  wind,  without  cover- 
ing the  neck.  On  the  following  day  73  soldiers  were  sent  to  the  hospital,  the 
greater  part  attacked  with  inflammatory  sore  throat,  and  in  a  few  days  more 
than  300  others  were  taken  sick,  apparently  from  the  same  exposure."  — 
DumjUson  on  Human  Health. 


CLOTHING.  69 

109.  Lightness^  proper  ventilation^  and  warmth  are  the 
three  desirable  qualities  in  clothing,  and  may  be  combined 
in  a  loosely-woven  cloth,  whose  meshes  contain  confined 
air.  Air  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat  known ; 
but  if  left  free,  it  abstracts  heat  also  by  promoting  evapor- 
ation from  the  skin,  and  by  keeping  up  a  continual  contact 
of  fresh  unwarmed  particles.  But  confined  air  prevents 
rapid  evaporation  as  well  as  radiation  and  the  actual  contact 
of  colder  bodies.  Hence  mittens,  as  containing  more  con- 
fined air,  and  also  because  the  fingers  are  in  contact,  are 
warmer  than  gloves.  Two  pairs  of  cotton  stockings  are 
greatly  conducive  to  comfort,  because  of  the  warmed  air 
between  them.  Two  undershirts  sometimes  give  more 
comfort  than  an  overcoat,  and  are  an  especial  protection 
against  sudden  exposure.  Felt  shoes  are  warmer  than 
leather  ones.  So,  woollen  stockings  drawn  over  shoes 
keep  the  feet  in  a  more  comfortable  condition  when  walk- 
ing through  snow  than  even  thick  shoes.  The  "clouds" 
worn  by  ladies  as  head  covering  are  both  light  and  very 
warm.^ 

110.  Clothing  that  is  much  worn  needs  a  texture  that 
will  admit  fresh  air  through  it,  or  should  be  so  arranged 


1  A  few  folds  of  newspaper  put  between  two  blankets  or  other  covers,  to 
keep  them  smooth,  will  furnish  sufficient  bed-clothing  for  a  bitter  winter's 
night.  In  addition  to  the  superior  non-conducting  quality  of  paper,  its  porosity 
allows  of  a  ready  escape  of  the  insensible  perspiration  without  the  cooling 
effects  of  evaporation.  The  sleeper  is  kept,  therefore,  dry  and  warm,  and 
never  experiences  that  clammy  dampness  which  results  from  thicker  bed- 
clothing  ;  nor  does  he  suffer  from  an  oppressing  weight.  To  the  rattle  of  the 
paper  he  will  soon  accustom  himself.  Paper  has  also  been  used  to  advantage 
in  the  shape  of  undervests,  and  in  the  soles  of  shoes. 

As  to  bed-clothing,  so-called  "comfortables"  are  sometimes  very  uncom- 
fortable, on  account  of  their  weight,  which  impedes  the  circulation  and  pre- 
vents the  escape  of  the  insensible  perspiration,  and  the  sleeper  awakes  in  thQ 
morning  damp  and  even  uncomfortably  cold. 


70  CLOTHING. 

that  the  air  may  pass  beneath  it.  Tightly-woven  and 
close-fitting  underclothing,  and  impervious  rubber  outer 
garments,  retain  the  impurities  from  the  skin  in  contact 
with  it.  Much  better  are  the  loosely-woven,  net-like  under- 
garments now  made,  and  the  gossamer  rubber  ones,  which 
in  some  instances  are  ventilated  by  valve-like  openings 
under  the  arms  and  on  the  back.  While  it  is  prudent  to 
provide  ourselves  with  overcoats,  wraps,  and  rubber  gar- 
ments during  a  storm,  they  should  be  removed,  or  at  least 
unfastened,  when  in-doors  or  not  exposed  to  the  fury  of 
the  elements. 

111.  Wet  clothing  chills  the  skin,  cools  the  air  in  con- 
tact with  it,  hinders  the  escape  of  impurities,  and  should 
be  removed  as  soon  as  possible  and  the  body  made  dry  and 
warm,  and  dry  clothing  substituted.  If  caught  in  a  storm, 
when  unprovided  with  wraps,  etc.,  the  increased  animal 
heat  afforded  by  walking  or  other  continuous  exercise  will 
usually  avert  evil  consequences. 

As  with  day  clothing,  so  that  of  the  nigiht^  including 
bed  coverings,  should  be  light,  dry,  airy,  and  warm.  There 
should  be  a  complete  change  of  clothing  at  night.  Much 
of  the  wakefulness  and  feverishness  then  experienced  is 
undoubtedly  due,  if  not  to  impure  air,  to  unaired  clothing. 
As  Miss  Nightingale  puts  it:  "Feverishness  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  a  symptom  of  fever,  —  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten  it  is  a  symptom  of  bedding." 

Unclean  clothing,  besides  keeping  the  skin  in  a  foul  con- 
dition, is  most  liable  to  become  a  receptacle  for  germs  of 
disease.  Clothing  worn  by  attendants  in  cases  of  scarlet 
fever,  small  pox,  or  other  contagious  disease,  is  a  constant 
source  of  contagion,  and  should  be  destroyed  by  fire  as 
soon  as  possible,  (a,'^ 


CLOTHING.  71 

112.  Color  in  dress  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  taste,  but, 
in  a  physiological  sense  also,  is  no  unimportant  considera- 
tion. Benjamin  Franklin  first  demonstrated,  by  means  of 
various  colored  cloths  placed  upon  the  surface  of  snow, 
that  black,  under  the  sun's  rays,  was  the  Avarmest  color, 
and  white  the  coolest.^  Dark  colors,  —  black,  blue,  etc., 
—  are  considered  best  for  general  use  in  cold  weather; 
and  white,  gray,  etc.,  in  hot.^ 

Owing  to  the  demand  for  cheap  and  bright-colored 
clothing,  those  of  poor  and  rough  material,  colored  with 
cheap  and  poisonous  dyes  containing  arsenic,  copper,  etc., 
are  quite  often  thrown  upon  the  market.  Colored  socks, 
tights,  under-shirts,  chest  protectors,  linings  of  hats,  boot- 
tops  and  gloves,  have  often,  in  consequence,  been  found 


1  Of  cloth  of  different  material  exposed  to  the  suns  rays  — 

"White  Cotton  received 100^  F.  of  heat. 

*'     Linen  received OS"^  F.  of  heat. 

"     Flannel  received 102°  F.  of  heat. 

"     Silk  received 108°  F.  of  heat." 

Of  shirtings  of  different  colors  so  exposed  — 

"  White  received 100°  F. 

Pale  straw  color  received 102°  F. 

Dark  yellow  received 140°  F. 

Light  green  received 155°  F. 

Dark  green  received 168°  F. 

Turkish  red  received 165°  F. 

Light  blue  received 198°  F. 

Black  received 208°  F." 

—Diet,  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health.    By  A.  Wynter  Blyth  and  Prof. 
Tardieu. 

-  ' '  Clothing  has  frequently  been  the  agent  through  which  infectious  disease 
has  been  propagated.  Judging  from  Stark's  observations  on  the  power  of 
absorbing  odors,  the  probability  is  that  contagion  is  absorbed  after  the  same 
manner.  Stark  found  that  the  absorption  of  odors  was  in  proportion  to  the 
hygroscopic  absorption,  and  that  it  depended  in  a  great  measure  upon  color,  — 
black  absorbing  most,  then  blue,  red,  green,  yellow,  and  lastly  white.  For  a 
nurse  a  dark  woollen  garment  is  the  worst,  and  light-colored  cotton  best."  — 
Diet,  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health.    London. 


72  CLOTHING. 

to  be  poisonous.     The  dyes  act  with  especial  force  in  hot 
weather,  when  by  perspiration  they  are  dissolved  out.^ 

113.  In  our  variable  climate  woollen  under-garments 
of  varying  thicknesses  for  the  different  seasons  should  be 
worn.  Intermediate  garments,  such  as  waists  and  vests, 
may  be  more  closely  woven,  and  made  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  Avear,  while  the  outer  garments  can  be  arranged 
with  greater  regard  to  the  mere  appearance.  Woollen  or 
silk  cloth  is  a  better  retainer  of  heat  than  cotton  or  linen. 
The  open  texture  of  woollen  cloth  is  filled  with  confined 
air,  and  its  ability  to  retain  moisture,  whether  from  the 
skin  or  from  outside,  prevents  the  cooling  effects  of  a 
rapid  evaporation.  Hence  flannel  and  merino,  in  our 
changeable  climate,  make  excellent  under,  intermediate, 
or  outer  garments.^ 

114.  Silk  is  the  next  most  suitable  material,  especially 
for  under-garments;  then  cotton;  and  lastly  linen.     Linen 

1  So  frequent  have  such  cases  of  poisoning  become  that  in  some  States  special 
laws  have  been  enacted  in  behalf  of  the  sufferer  against  the  manufacturer. 

"The  symptoms  produced  vary  somewhat;  usually  they  consist  in  redness 
and  staining  of  the  part,  followed  by  swelling,  itching,  and  smarting,  with  the 
formation  of  little  blisters  or  vesicles,  which  break  and  give  exit  to  a  discharge. 
The  part  affected  then  becomes  decidedly  painful,  and  is  occasionally  greatly 
swollen.  There  is  also  a  great  deal  of  constitutional  disturbance,  and  in  fact 
the  sufferer  is  quite  ill.  The  peculiar  staining  of  the  skin,  coinciding  with  the 
particular  hue  and  pattern  (bars,  stripes,  etc.)  of  the  colored  article,  at  once 
suggests  the  cause  of  the  mischief."  —  The  Skin  and  its  Troubles.  Health 
Primer.    London. 

2  The  favorite  receipt  of  the  celebrated  English  physician,  John  Hunter, 
for  the  rearing  of  children,  was  "  plenty  of  milk,  plenty  of  sleep,  and  plenty 
of  flannel."  It  is  stated  by  physicians  in  hot  countries  that  the  wearing  of 
wide  flannel  bandages  (doubled)  over  the  abdomen  is  a  capital  safeguard 
against  cholera  and  bowel  affections,  and  against  a  sudden  check  of  the  per- 
spiration. Street  laborers,  soldiers,  factorymeu,  etc.,  find  by  experience  that 
they  can  wear  flannel  with  comfort  when  exposed  to  varying  changes  in  the 
atmosphere  and  at  hard  work.  It  is  said  that  in  rainy  weather  sailors  wring 
out  the  water  from  their  woollen  jackets  and  put  them  on  again,  seldom 
catching  cold. 


CLOTHING.  73 

being  a  good  conductor,  and  thin  and  closely  woven,  is 
too  cool  for  winter  use,  or  for  an  under  garment  when  the 
wearer  is  working  hard,  or  is  exposed  to  a  changeable 
climate,  or  in  factories  where  there  is  great  heat,  and 
the  opening  of  doors,  windows,  flues,  etc.,  causes  draughts 
of  air.  For  those  whose  skins  are  irritated  by  flannel, 
linen,  cotton,  or  silk  garments  may  he  worn  next  the  skin, 
with  flannel  over  them.^ 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  clothing  keep  us  comfortable,  and  what  other  use 

has  it? 

2.  What  are  the  evil  effects  of  tight  clothing  ?    Illustrate. 

3.  What  of  too  tight  or  too  heavy  clothing,  respectively  ? 

4.  What  are  the  three  desirable  qualities  in  clothing,  and  how  are 

they  best  combined  ? 

5.  How  and  why  may  au-  be  made  useful  in  our  clothing?  Illustrate. 

6.  Why  should  clothing  have  ventilation  ? 

7.  What  are  the  bad  effects  of  wet  clothing  ? 

8.  Of  what  sort  should  our  bed  covering  be  ? 

9.  What  may  result  from  unclean  clothing  ? 

10.  Of  what  importance  is  the  color  of  clothing  ? 

11.  What  bad  effects  have  improper  dyes? 

12.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  different  materials  in  clothing  ? 


1  For  a  close  head  covering  (nightcaps,  for  instance) ,  silk,  because  of  its 
superior  non-conducting  property,  is,  to  such  as  require  a  cool  head,  the  very 
worst. 


74 


ANALYSIS. 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    FIFTH,   SIXTH,  AND  SEVENTH 
CHAPTERS. 


THE      SKIN. 

I.   Anatomy. 
'  Epidermis,  —  Cells. 

'Connective  tissue" 
Fat 

1.  Structure   .  .  I  Dermis    .  .  <  Blood-vessels 

N'erves 
^  Lymphatics 
L  Sub-cutaneous  connective  tissue. 
rHair. 

2.  Appendages  .  \  Glands,  —  sebaceous  and  sweat. 

[.Nails. 

IT.   Physiology. 


Color  derived 

from  pigment 

and  blood. 


1.  Functions 


1.  Bathing 


'  A  protective  covering. 
An  organ  of  sensation. 
An  organ  of  excretion. 
A  regulator  of  temperature. 
An  organ  of  absorption. 
An  accessory  organ  of  breathing. 

III.   Hygiene. 

^  -rj       (  To  assist  the  skin  in  discharging  its  functions. 
^^^  \  To  promote  health  and  fortify  against  disease. 
Proper  and  improper  bathing. 
Effects  of. 
Times  for.  fHot. 

Warm. 

ra.  As  to  temperature  \  Temperate. 
Cool. 
,Cold. 
r  Fresh. 
I  Salt. 
y  Mineral. 

c.  Vapor  or  Russian. 

d.  Air,  —  [Hot  or  Turkish.     Cold]. 

e.  Sun.     Mud.     Broth.     Blood,  etc. 
r  Friction. 

L  Adjuncts   .  <  Soap. 

I  Inunction. 


Baths . 


h.  As  to  water . 


ANALYSIS. 


75 


2.  Clothing .  . 


Hygiene.  —  Continued. 

rr.  x  1         j:  f  Radiation. 

To  prevent  loss  of  I  Conduction. 

h^^*^y [Contact. 

Uses  ...  .  ^  To  protect  externally  from  heat  and 
other  sources  of  injury. 
As  a  covering. 
As  an  ornament. 

rrit.  ^ 

Quantity. 

r  Dry  and  damp. 
r\     J -J.-         Ventilation. 
l^^^^^^t^^^M  Cleanliness. 

[  As  to  contagion. 
Color  and  dyes. 

Linen. 
Cotton. 
Wool. 
Silk,  ete. 


Proper  and 
improper 


Material .  .  ^ 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

DIGESTION. -THE    CONVERSION   OF 
FOOD    INTO    TISSUES. 

115.  So  far,  we  have  studied  the  structure  and  uses 
of  the  bones,  muscles,  fat,  and  skin.  We  are  now  to 
consider  various  structures  for  the  most  part  within  the 
skeleton;  viz.,  the  digestive  organs,  heart,  blood-vessels, 
lungs,  etc. ;  and,  in  connection  with  these  structures,  those 
processes  which,  because  of  their  importance,  are  ordinarily 
distinguished  as  the  vital  processes,  —  such  as  digestion, 
circulation,  respiration,  and  the  production  and  mainte- 
nance of  animal  heat  and  nervous  energy. 

116.  The  maintenance  of  life  depends  upon  the  vitality 
of  the  innumerable  cells  of  which  each  body  is  composed, 
and  this  vitality  is  largely  influenced  by  food.^  "From 
the  food  the  blood  is  fed ;  from  the  blood  the  tissues  are 
fed."  The  conversion  of  food  in  the  body  into  blood  is 
called  digestion.  The  digestive  organs  consist  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  and  its  accessory  organs. 

117.  The  alimentary  canal  is  a  muscular  membranous 
tube,  in  adults  from  25  to  30  feet  in  length,  or  about  five 
times  as  long  as  the  entire  body.  It  begins  at  the  mouth, 
and  extends  downward  throughout  the  body.  In  it  the 
digestion  of  food  is  performed.     It  is  lined  throughout  its 

1  See,  in  Introduction,  remarks  about  "cell  life." 


THE  CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES. 


77 


entire  length  with  a  delicate  but  firm  tissue,  which  is  con- 
tinuous with  a  similar  lining  of  the  air  passages,  the  whole 


Fig.  32. 
The  alimentary  canal.  — ^,  mouth;  P,  pharynx;  OE,  oesophagus;  S,  stomach; 
CO,  its  cardiac  opening  ;  PO,  its  pyloric  opening  ;  SI,  small  intestine  ;  VA, 
vermiform  appendix  ;  LI,  large  intestine ;  R,  rectum  ;  GB,  gall  bladder  ; 
BD,  bile  duct  ;  PD,  pancreatic  duct  ;  DO,  opening  of  the  common  duct 
into  small  intestines.  Accessory  digestive  organs:  L,  liver;  P,  pancreas; 
S,  spleen. 

being  known  as  the  mucous  membrane^  or  "internal  skin."^ 
This  varies  in  thickness  and  general  arrangement  in  dif- 


1  From  a  similarity  to  the  external  skin. 


78 


DIGESTION. 


ferent  portions  of  the  canal,  and  contains  numerous  folli- 
cles for  secretion  and  excretion,  and  its  surface  is  covered 
with  cells  variously  arranged.^  In  addition  to  the  digestive 
fluids  which  it  secretes,  it  is  supplied  with  a  viscid  fluid 
called  mucus,  which  protects  it  and  enables  its  oj)posing 
surfaces  to  glide  easily  upon  each  other  in  the  various 
movements  of  the  canal  incident  to  digestion.  ^  The 
alimentary  canal  varies  in  its  different  portions  in  size, 
form,  and  structure,  thereby  forming  the  mouth,  pharynx, 
oesophagus,  stomach,  and  intestines. 

118.  The  mouth  and  its  appendages  (the  cheeks,  lips, 
tongue,  teeth,  etc.)  are  concerned  in  the  earlier  steps  of 
digestion,  and  in  health  are  supplied  with  a  fluid  called 
the  saliva. 

119.  Behind  the  mouth,  and  at  the  first  bend  of  the 
alimentary  canal  downward,  is  the  pharynx.  This  is,  in 
general,  funnel  shaped,  but  with  its  upper  portion,  or  roof, 
rounded  like  a  buggy  top.  It  is  partly  separated  from 
the  mouth  by  a  very  movable  curtain-like  muscular  flap 
called  the  soft  palate,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  hard 
palate,  which  is  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  is  composed 
of  bone  covered  with   mucous   membrane.      Above  and 


1  In  the  nose  and  air  passages  it  is  thin  and  smooth,  in  the  mouth  and 
throat  somewhat  thicker,  upon  the  tongue  it  is  covered  with  papillae,  in  the 
small  intestine  with  very  soft  projections  called  villi,  and  in  the  stomach  it 
is  thrown  into  ridges.  The  cells  covering  the  svirface  of  the  mucous  memhrane 
are  epithelial  cells,  and  together  constitute  the  epithelium. 

2  Ordinarily,  in  health,  there  is  just  sufficient  mucus  to  act  as  a  lubricant. 
But  in  some,  young  children  especially,  whose  tissues  are  very  sensitive,  an 
excess  of  mucus  is  readily  induced  by  an  irritation  of  the  raucous  membrane, 
through  indigestible  food,  exposure  of  the  skin  to  sudden  changes  in  tempera- 
ture, and  by  other  means.  This  excess  of  mucus  may,  by  coating  proper  food, 
interfere  with  its  digestion.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  mucous  membrane  is 
not  torn,  injured,  or  diseased,  such  an  excess  by  coating  improper  articles 
which  have  been  swallowed,  —  such  as  coin,  —  will  generally  prevent  any 
injury  that  might  otherwise  result  from  them. 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES. 


79 


behind  the  soft  palate,  the  pharynx  communicates  with 
the  nose  by  two  openings,  one  for  each  nostril,  known  as 
the  "posterior  nares."     In  the  upper  and  back  portion  of 


Fig.  33. 
A  vertical  section  through  the  middle  of  the  face,  neck,  and  upper  vertebrae.  — 
1,  Cavity  in  the  skull  ;  2,  opening  of  left  Eustachian  tube  ;  3,  the  hard 
palate ;  4,  the  soft  palate ;  5,  muscular  wall  in  front  of  tonsil ;  6,  muscular 
wall  behind  the  tonsil ;  7,  the  left  tonsil  ;  8,  pharynx,  or  throat ;  9,  the 
epiglottis;  10,  the  hyoid  bone;  11,  oesophagus;  12,  the  cavity  of  larynx. 

the  throat,  on  a  line  with  the  "floor  of  the  nose,"  are  the 
openings  of  two  ducts,  named  the  Eustachian  tubes,  which 
connect  the  mouth  with  the  organs  of  hearing.  At  the 
lower  portion  of  the  throat,  in  front,  is  the  larynx,  which 


80 


DIGESTION. 


opens  into  the  windpipe.     Surrounding  the  pharynx  are 
three  obliquely-placed  muscles,  styled  the  constrictors  of 

the  pharynx.  These  overlap  each 
other,  and  with  other  muscles  are 
concerned  in  the  act  of  swallowing. 

120.  The  oesophagus,  or  gullet, 
is  the  next  portion  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  connects  the 
pharynx  with  the  stomach.  It  is 
about  nine  inches  long,  and  lies 
upon  the  front  and  upper  portion 
of  the  spinal  column.  Its  walls 
contain  both  longitudinal  and  cir- 
cular involuntary  muscular  fibres, 
which,  by  their  alternate  contrac- 
tion and  relaxation,  serve  to  propel 
the  contents  of  the  oesophagus 
towards  the  stomach.  The  wave- 
like motion  thus  resulting  is  called 


Fig.  34. 

The    location    of   the    constrictor  .        ,    . 

muscles.  — LJ,  the  front  part  of  the     "  DCriStaltlC 

lower  jaw,  the  remainder  being  ^      ,       1.-,— — —  ;„  . 

cujt  away  to  show  parj;s^beneath;  similar  tO   that   of   tllC   inteStilieS.^ 


motion,   and   is 


HB,  the  hyoid  bone ;  TO,  thyroid 
cartilage  of  larynx ;  CC,  cricoid 
cartilage  of  larynx;  T,  trachea; 
OE,  oesophagus;  CM,  the  con- 
strictor muscles  —  superior,  mid- 
dle, and  inferior. 


121.  The  stomach  is  somewhat 
pear  shaped,  its  larger  end  being 
upon  the  ^ft  side  of  the  body, 
beneath  the  ribs,  in  contact  with  the  spleen,  to  which  it  is 
joined  by  a  ligament  of  connective  tissue.  The  smaller 
end  is  on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  under  the  liver. 
When  moderately  filled,  the  length  of  the  stomach  is  from 
tliirteen  to^fifteen  inches,  and.-its--giLeiitest_jdiaia£terfive 
inches.^     Its  capacity  is  about  five  pints. 

1  This  peculiar  motion  is  also  called  "  vermicular,"  or  worm-like. 

2  Its  form  and  position  vary  in  one  and  the  same  individual  at  different 
times.    When  empty,  it  is  shrunken  and  flattened.    In  the  infant  the  lining  of 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  8l 

The  stomach  has  two  openings :  one  where  the  oesophagus 
enters,  called  the  cardiac^  opening,  because  of  its  location 
near  the  heart,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  dia- 
phragm 2;  the  other  is  styled  the  pyloric^  or  "gate"  open- 


Fig.  35. 

The  muscles  of  the  stomach,  one  portion  removed  to  show  underlying  fibres. 

ing,  because  it  is  provided  with  a  muscular  valve  known 
as  the  pylorus^  or  "gate-keeper,"  the  object  of  which  is  to 
prevent  the  premature  exit  of  food  from  the  stomach.* 

the  stomach  is  soft  aud  irritable,  hence  vomiting  is  easily  induced.  The 
stomach  of  the  glutton  becomes  distended,  and  does  not  readily  regain  its 
normal  shape,  and  indigestion  results. 

1  Derived  from  the  Greek  KapSia,  meaning  "heart." 

2  When  the  stomach  is  over  distended,  it  sometimes  presses  upon  the  heart, 
giving  rise  to  the  symptoms  of  heart  disease. 

3  Derived  from  a  Greek  word,  meaning  "gate." 

4  When  the  stomach  contains  a  large  amount  of  indigestible  food,  and  has 
been  over  long  in  action,  its  muscular  tone  diminishes,  and  the  valve  is  no 
longer  effectual  to  prevent  the  exit  of  improper  material.  But,  fortunately, 
for  this  very  reason,  indigestible  substances  accidentally  swallowed  (such  as 
coins,  beads,  etc.)  can,  on  the  relaxing  of  the  muscular  activity  of  the  organ, 
pass  the  "gate-keeper,"  though  sometimes  their  passage  is  greatly  delayed 
and  causes  miTch  discomfort. 


82 


DIGESTIOK. 


122.  The  lining  of  the  stomach  is  very  soft  and  deli- 
cate. When  the  cavity  is  almost  or  entirely  empty,  it  is 
arranged  in  folds.    It  is  amply  supplied  with  blood-vessels, 


Fig.  36. 

The  internal  surface  of  the  stomach,  from  which  the  epithelium  has  been  removed, 
showing  the  openings  of  gastric  glands.     [Magnified  20  diameters.] 


\  • 


iny.cous_glands,  and  g2:^tric_Jubiiles,  or  follicles.     These 
last  secrete  a  thin,  acid  fluid,  known  as  the  gastric  juice. 
Its  quantity  is  increased  by  condimentsTA 
and  its  flow  facilitated  by  the  odor  and  \ 
appearance  of  appetizing  food;    on  the    \ 
other  hand,  the  quantity  is  diminished    I 
by  fear,  anxiety,  anger,  grief,  etc.,  and    / 
j,lso  by  that  depression  which  follows; 
excessive  eating  and  drinking. 

The    muscles    in    the   walls    of    the 
stomach,    and    outside   of    its    mucous 
membrane,    are    involuntary,    and    are 
arranged  in  three  layers,  —  the  xihliQue, 
Fig.  37.-A  gastric  gland,     ^j^^     circular,     and     the     longitudinal. 

Their  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  serve  to  agitate 
thoroughly  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 


THE   CONVERSIOIT   OF   FOOD   INTO  TISSUES.  83 

123.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal 
consists  of  the  intestines,  or  "  bowels,"  which  occupy  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  are  divided  into  the  small  and 
large  intestines, — the  former  being  from  twenty  to^twenty- 
fiye,  and  the  latter  about_  five„feet  in  length. 

124.  The  small  intestine,  so  named  on  account  of  its 
calibre,  is  a  cylindrical  conduit,  coiled  upon  itself  and 
extending  ^roni  the  pylorus  to  the  large  intestine^  its 
opening  into  Avliich  is  guarded  by  the  Tileo-coecal  valye,J 
an  arrangement  which  readily  admits  of  the  passage  into 
the  large  intestine  of  refuse  material,  but  interposes  a 
very  considerable  barrier  to  its  return.  In  the  walls  of 
the  intestine,  throughout  nearly  its  entire  length,  are  in- 
voluntary  muscular  fibres,  which  are  abundantly  supplied 
with  a  network  of  nerves.^ 

The    intestine    is    held    in    place    by   the    mesentery, 
which  is  a  double  fold  of  serous  membrane^  attached  to 
the  spinal  column ;  but  it  so  envelopes  the  infestine  that 
its  necessary  peristaltic  movements  in  the  transmission  oi  .\j\ 
food  are  not  interfered  with.^  "M^^* 

The  lining  of  the  intestine  is  very  vascular  and  velvety,  \ 

and  throughout  the  larger  part  of  the  canal  is  arranged    ~ 

in  transverse  shelf-like  folds  more  or  less  circular  in  formj      /w 
'^      '(» 

1  See  Fig.  32. 

2  "Invariably  the  contraction  of  the  muscular  tissue,  like  that  of  every 
form  of  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscle,  takes  place  under  the  influence  of 
the  nerves.  Besides  the  nerves,  distributed  in  networks  and  plexuses  to  the 
mucous  membrane  and  muscles  in  great  number,  there  is  a  highly  complex 
system  of  ganglia,  or  nerve-centres,  little  appreciated,  and  indeed  hardly 
known  to  more  than  a  few  observers.  ...  So  numerous  are  the  fine  nerve- 
fibres,  that  there  is  not  a  portion  of  tissue  the  s^th.  of  an  inch  in  width  which 
does  not  receive  an  abundant  supply."  — ^7uy A <  Ailments.    L.  S.  Beale,  M.D. 

3  A  membrane  which  secretes  a  thin  whey-like  fluid  called  serum. 

4  A  similar  membrane,  imder  the  name  of  the  peritoiieum,  encloses,  for  the 
most  part,  all  the  abdominal  viscera  in  the  same  way. 


84 


DIGESTIOK. 


which,  from  their  winking  motion  as  they  sway  backward 
and  forward  in  the  fluids  of  the  intestine,  are  called 
valvulae  conniventes.  There  are  about  800  of  these  delicate 
folds.  They  retard  the  passage  of  food,  and  provide  a 
very  large  surface  for  secretion  and  absorption. 

The  characteristic  velvety  condition  of  the  mucous 
membrane  is  due  to  its  numerous  cone-like  elevations, 
presenting  an  appearance  like  plush,  and  known  as  the 
intpMinal  villL     There  are  more  than  10,000,000  of  these 


Fig   38. 

Villi  of  small  intestine,  with  their  superficial  arteries  and  veins  distended. 

[Magnified  100  diameters.] 

villi.  Within  them  are  numerous  minute  blood-vessels 
(veins)  which  empty  into  a  large  vein,  called  the  ^rtal 
vein^  which  conveys  to  the  liver  certain  products  of 
digestion.  They  contain  also  other  vessels,  known  as 
lacteals^^  which  are  a  part  of  a  wonderful  system  of  vessels 
distributed  throughout  the  body,  called  the   lymphatics?' 


1  So  called,  because  during  the  process  of  digestion  these  minute  vessels 
have  a  white  appearance  like  milk,  from  a  fluid  within  them  called  chyle.  At 
other  times  they  are  not  readily  discerned. 

2  See  §  249. " 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES. 


85 


These  lacteals  commence  probably  as  blind  extremities  in 
the  intestinal  villi,  and  empty  into  the  receptaculum  cJiyli 
(^.e.,  receptacle  of  the  •  chyle),  a  pouch  lying  upon  the 
lumbar  vertebrae.  This  pouch  connects  with  the  thoracic 
dyj:i,,  a  tube  quill-like  in  size,  which 
extends  upwards  and  empties  into  the 
left  subclavian  vein,  the  large  vein  under 
the  left  clavicle,  or  collar  bone. 

In  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  in- 
testine are  numerous  follicles,  some  of 
which  secrete  miuius  and  some  ajijges- 
tive_  fluid  known  as^itesthiaL^iuice. 
Within  about  tlu^ee  inches  of  the  pylorus 
the  duct  from  the  gall  bladder  of  the 
liver,  and  that  from  the  pancreas,  open 
into  the  intestine,  admitting  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  juice. 

125.  The  lar^e  intestine  begins  at  the 
ileo-coecal  valve,  in  the  (right_Jjower 
portion  of  the  abdominal  cavitv..  ascends 
upon  the  right  side  of  the  cavity,  crosses 
over  to  the  left  underneath  the  stomach, 
and  descends  upon  the  left  side,  ter- 
minating the  alimentary  canal.  The 
commencement  of  the  large  intestine  is  styled  the  coeeum. 
This  is  a  rounded  cavity,  and  has  a  cylindrical  tube  from 

^one  to  five  inches  long  projecting  from  its  lower  portion, 
which  tube  is  known  as  the  ^^^jo^endix  vermiformis.^  Its 
uses  are  not  known.  Sometimes  seeds  of  small  fruit 
lodge  in  it,  and  cause  serious  disease,  which  may  result 
in  death. 

126.  The  accessory  digestive  organs  are  the  teeth,  sali- 
vary glands,  liver,  and  pancreas.     The  spleeyi  has,  uj)  to 


i: 


A  vertical  section  of  an 
intestinal  villus. — a,  epi- 
thelial cells ;  6  h,  blood- 
vessels entering  and  leav- 
ing the  villus;  d,  lym- 
phatic vessel  (lacteal)  in 
the  centre. 


/ 


86  DIGESTION. 

within  a  recent  period,  been  considered  as  one  of  these 
accessory  organs,  though  its  function  is  not  definitely 
known.  The  principal  effect  produced  in  animals  by  its 
removal  is  an  inordinate  craving  for  food.  It  is  now 
believed  that  the  spleen  takes  part  in  the  elaboration  of 
blood.i 

127.  The  teeth  are  the  organs  of  mastication  or  chew- 
ing. By  them  the  food  is  thoroughly  ,biQ]^en  up  into 
minute  fragments,  and  thus  prepared  for  the  softening 
and  digestive  action  of  the  saliva.  They  assist  also  in  the 
use  of  the  voice,  and  preserve  the  symmetry  .of  th_e._face^ 
Their  position  in  the  jaws  is  secured  by  "roots"  inserted 
firmly  into  sockets,  and  by  the  support  afforded  by  the 
gums,  which  are  composed  of  dense  fibrous  tissue,  covered 
with  mucous  membrane.^ 

The  part  of  a  tooth  projecting  from  the  gum  is  known 
/as  the  crown,  and  is  covered  by  the  enamel^vhich  is 
the  hardest  substance  in  the  body.  But  though  capable, 
ordinarily,  of  resisting  great  pressure,  it  may  be  broken, 
and  the  decay  of  the  teeth  rendered  probable,  by  the  crack- 
ing of  hard  shell  nuts  or  other  hard  substances  between 
them.^ 

The  bulk  of  the  tooth  is  composed  of  dentine,  a 
substance  resembling  bone,  but  without  canaliculi  and 
lacunae.      It  is  often   called  tooth-bone  or   ivory.      The 

1  "  The  spleen  ...  is  not  immediately  concerned  with  the  processes  of  diges- 
tion, and  its  developmental  origin  shows  it  to  be  unconnected  with  the  digestive 
organs,  although  it  lies  in  the  abdomen.  ...  It  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  the  functions  of  the  spleen  are  intimately  connected  with  the  work  of 
sanguinification  .  .  .  The  spleen  is  most  probably  one  of  the  seats  of  forma- 
tion of  the  white  blood  corpuscles  and  of  destruction  of  the  red.  It  is,  in  fact, 
a  blood-lymph-gland." —  Quain's  Diet,  of  Medicine.    Wm.  Aitken,  1882. 

'■^  In  old  people  who  have  lost  their  teeth,  the  gums  shrink  and  sometimes 
become  very  hard,  enabling  the  owner  to  munch  his  food  with  them. 

3  The  hardness  of  the  enamel  varies  in  different  persons.  In  some  it  is  so 
soft  that  the  teeth  wear  down  almost  to  the  gums. 


THE   CONVERSION   OF    FOOD    INTO   TISSUES.  87 

dentine  encloses  a  cavity  in  the  tooth,  which  is  termed  the 
p,U,1p  cavity,  and  which   contains   the_jju]j^,  a    substance 
consisting  of  connective  tissue.  blaodrX.essels,  and  tei'minal 
neixss.      The  nerves  and  blood-vessels  enter  this  cavity 
through  a  small  opening  at  the  tip  of 
each   root.^     Canals   radiate    from  the 
pulp  cavity  to  the  outer  surface  of  the 
dentine.     Destruction  of  the  enamel  at 
any  point,  therefore,  exposes  the  entire 
cavity,  and  decay  results.  («.) 

128.    There  are  two  sets  of  teeth, —  a  vertical  section  of  tooth. 

■  1      .        f.  1  1  -1  11  1      1  J.1  — E,  enamel;  C,  cemen- 

that  ot  early  childhood,  known  as  the     tum ;  o,  o,  openings  in 

f^       ,  .  .  A  l^  roots  for  the  i)a88age  of 

nrst,  primary,  or  temporary  set,  or  the     nerves  and  biood-vesseis 

,  into  the  pulp  cavity,  rep- 

milk  teeth;  and  the  second,  or  perma-     resented  in  figure  by 
nent  set,  of  youth  and  of  adult  life. 

The  Umporary^  set  has  twenty  teeth,  ten  in  each  jaw.  "V**  ** 
The  four  in  the  front  of  each  jaw  are  the  imMQI^i  or  ^ 
"  cutters."     They  have  chisel-like  or  Avedge-shaped  edges, 
which  enable  us  to  bite  or  cut  our  food.     Adjoining  the 
incisors  are  the  canines,^  one  on  each  side  of  each  jaw.  jSf 
These  teeth  are  somewhat  pointed  at  the  edges,  after  the 
manner  of  the  teeth  of  dogs.     They  assist  the  incisors  in 
dividing  the  food.     The  remaining  teeth  of  the  temporary 
set  are   the  molars^^  or   "grinders,"  two  on  each  side  of  ^ 
each  jaw.     These  teeth  pulverize   the  food,   and  in  the 
permanent  set  are  especially  strong.     Their  grinding  sur- 


1  The  pulp  supplies  nourishment  to  the  tooth.  When  it  dies  the  tooth  loses 
its  trauslucency  and  sensibility,  and  is  discolored  ;  and  if  it  be  a  tooth  of  the 
permanent  set,  is  never  replaced  by  a  new  one,  or  even  by  new  tooth-struc- 
ture, but  may  retain  its  position  in  the  jaw  and  do  duty  for  years. 

2  That  is,  "dog  teeth,"  so  called  from  the  Latin  catiis,  a  dog.  The  upper 
canines  are  sometimes  called  "eye  teeth,"  the  lower  ones  "stomach  teeth," 
though  they  have  no  peculiar  relation  to  these  organs. 

3  From  the  Latin  moku'is,  a  grindstone. 


1  w 


88 


DIGESTION. 


^ 


faces  are  grooved,  and  upon  them  are  three  or  four  conical 
elevations,  more  or  less  marked.  The  first  tooth  of  the 
temporary  set  is  cut  usually  about  the  sixth  or  seventh 
jnonth  of^life,  the  last  about  the  end  of  the  second  year.i 

The   teeth  of  the  permanent  set  are  larger  and  mucli 
stronger  than  those  of  the  first  set.     They  are  thirty-two 


o      M 


Fig.  41. 
A  diagram  of  two  upper  jaws,  representing  the  location,  arrangement,  and  time 
of  eruption  of  the  temporary  and  permanent  teeth.     The  relation  of  the  tem- 

f)orary  to  the  permanent  teeth  is  indicated  by  their  position,  and  by  dotted 
iues  connecting  them  with  the  permanent  teeth.  The  numerals  represent,  in 
one  instance,  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  in  years;  in  the  other, 
in  months.  —  I,  incisor  teeth;  C,  canine  teeth;  B,  bicuspid  teeth;  M,  molar 
teeth. 

/  4 in  number,  —  sixteen  in  each  jaw;  viz.,  four  incisors,  two 
canines,  four  bicuspids,^  and  six  molars.  The  bicuspids^ 
found  in  the  permanent  set  only,  are  between  the  canines 
and  molars,  two  on  each  side  of  each  jaw.  They  are 
shorter  and  thicker  than  the  canines,  and  assist  the  molars 


1  Babies  are  sometimes  born  with  teetli ;  but  fi-om  various  causes,  such  a;^ 
sickness,  hereditary  peculiarities,  lack  of  proper  tooth-forming  food,  etc.,  the 
appearance  of  the  teeth  may  be  delayed  till  one  year  of  age,  or  even  longer. 

2  So  called,  because  they  have  tioo  cusps  or  points  upon  their  crowns. 


THE  CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  89 

in  crushing  the  food.  The  permanent  teeth  originate  near 
the  roots  of  the  temporary  teeth,  and  as  they  develop, 
press  upon  these  roots  and  cause  their  absorption,  the 
temporary  teeth  being  eventually  shed  as  little   conical 


1 


Fig.  42. 
Section  of  jaws,  showing  the  temporary  and  permanent  teeth. 

"  crowns  "  with  convex  bases.     The  first  tooth  of  the  per-"^A 
manent  set  appears  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  the\  C^ 
last,  or  Avisdom  teetli,  about  the  twenty-fourth  year.^  ^ 

1  The  first  permanent  teeth  appear  behind  the  posterior  milk  molars,  before 
any  of  the  milk  teeth  are  shed ;  viz.,  at  six  years,  so  that  a  child  of  six  has 
twenty-four  teeth, — twenty  temporary  and  four  permanent.  The  permanent 
teeth  usually  appear  as  follows :  — 

The  First  molars  at  the  Gth  year,  sometimes  called  the  "six year  "  molars. 
"    Central  incisors  at  the  7th  year. 
"    Lateral  incisors  at  the  8th  year. 

"    Anterior  bicuspids  at  the  9th  year,  replacing  first  milk  molars. 
"    Posterior  bicuspids  at  the  10th  year,  replacing  posterior  molars. 
"    Canines  at  the  11th  to  12th  year. 
"    Second  molars  at  the  12th  to  13th  year,    sometimes  called  "twelve 

year"  molars. 
"    Third  molars  at  the  17th  to  25th  year. 


90  DIGESTION. 


"^  129.    In  mastication,  the  lower  jaw  is  pressed  against 

-^  the  stationary  upper  jaw  with  lateral,  rotary,  and  iipwaxd 
^^tXmovements,  by  means  of  powerful  muscIesT  The  size  and 
\^^  strength  of  the  permanent  molars,  and  their  broad  and 

^  irregular  upper  surfaces,  well  adapt  them  for  this  grinding 
action.^ 


Fig.  43.     (White.) 

The  connection  of  the  nerves  of  the  teeth  with  the  sensitive  nerves  of  the  face 

and  head. 


1  These  movements  of  the  jaws  are  very  marked  in  herbivorous  animals, 
such  as  the  cow  and  horse.  In  such  animals  the  other  teeth  are  sometimes 
rudimentary,  but  the  molar  teeth  are  very  large,  and  present  broad,  grooved 
surfaces,  somewhat  like  the  ridges  and  depressions  in  the  grinding  surfaces 
of  millstones. 


THE   CONVERSIOiT  OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  91 

The  teeth  of  the  human  being  combine  the  charac- 
teristics of  those  of  the  carnivora  and  herbivora,  —  that 
is  to  say,  are  adapted  for  masticating  both  animal  and 
vegetable  food.  The  first  appearance  of  teeth  indicates 
that  other  food  than  milk  can  now  be  used,  while  the 
cutting  of  the  permanent  teeth  shows  that  food  which 
requires  much  chewing  is  to  be  included  in  a  proper 
diet. 

130.  It  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  the  permanent  teeth 
alone  require  care^  and  that  it  is  a  matter  of  no  importance 
whether  the  temporary  teeth  decay  or  not.  In  point  of 
fact,  proper  care  of  the  temporary  set  often  insures  a 
regular  and  strong  permanent  set.  The  temporary  teeth 
in  healthy  children  should  not  decay,  but  should  fall  out 
clean  and  white  when  their  function  is  ended.  They  are, 
however,  if  not  cared  for,  more  liable  to  decay  than  per- 
manent teeth,  on  account  of  the  larger  proportion  of  animal 
matter  they  contain.  For  this  reason  the  condition  of  the 
teeth  of  children  should  be  carefully  ascertained,  and 
defects  remedied  at  least  twice  a  year  by  a  reliable  dentist.^ 
In  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  mastication,  and  the  tooth- 
ache caused  by  decay  of  teeth,  an  excruciating  pain  in  the 
side  of  the  face  and  head  (^.e.,  neuralgia)  results,  from  an 
extension  of  the  irritation  from  the  small  nerve  in  the 
tooth  pulp  to  the  large  nerves  of  the  face  and  head. 


1  Cavities  in  the  temporary  as  well  as  in  the  permanent  teeth  should  be 
filled  when  possible.  The  premature  extraction  of  a  tooth  may  destroy  the 
symmetry  of  the  jaws,  and  allow  the  opposing  tooth  to  grow  to  an  uncomfort- 
able length.  In  rabbits  a  tooth  thus  deprived  of  its  opposing  one  grows  like  a 
tusk.  Much  can  be  accomplished  by  competent  dentists  towards  regulating 
the  direction  of  the  teeth  and  the  shape  of  the  jaws.  The  excess  of  animal 
matter  in  the  osseous  tissue  of  young  children  accounts  for  the  deformed  upper 
jaws,  with  the  projecting  front  teeth,  which  sometimes  results  from  long  con- 
tinued thumb-sucking. 


92  DIGESTION. 

131.  Teeth,  as  well  as  bones,  require  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  mineral  matter,  which  should  be  supplied  by  proper 
food.  They  should  be  kept  clean  by  frequent  rinsing 
with  water,  and  by  the  gentle  but  lirm  use  of  a  small  and 
rather  soft  brush,  especially  upon  the  inner  side  of  the 
teeth,  in  the  morning  and  before  retiring.^  Every  particle 
of  foreign  matter  should  be  removed  from  between  the 
teeth  by  a  quill  or  wooden  tooth-j^ick,  or,  when  necessary, 
by  drawing  a  thread  or  thin  strip  of  rubber  between  the 
teeth.2 

132.  Acid  or  gritty  powders,  or  mixtures  including 
charcoal,  are  to  be  avoided.  Prepared  chalk,  or  "  camphor 
and  chalk  powder,"  or  chalk  and  orris  root,  or  even  com- 
mon salt,  may  be  used  to  advantage.     If  the  secretions  of 

?-        the  mouth  are  acid,  a  mouth  wash  of  a  weak  solution  of 

;  sodium  bicarbonate  (one-fourth  teaspoonful  to  two  ounces 

^       of  water)   is  serviceable ;    or,  lime  water,  flavored  with 

liquid  extract  of  licorice.     To  remove  odors,  a  wash  of 

two  or  three  drops  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  half  tumbler  of 

.^ater,  or  a  solution  of  common  salt,  is  useful. 

133.  Of  the  accessory  organs  of  digestion,  the  next  to 
be  considered  are  the  salivary  cjlands.    The  most  important 

-^        of  these  are :    1st.  The  ^rotids,^  one  in  front  of  and  be- 

^  v^  low  each  ear,  with  a  duct  opening  into  the  mouth  about 

^^  ,opposite  each  second  upper  molar  tooth.    2d.  The  two  suh^ 

maxillari/  g^lands,  just  within  the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw, 


1  Frequent  scrubbing  of  the  teeth  with  large  and  hard  ^rushes  is  injurious. 

2  Pins,  knife-blades,  and  other  metallic  substances  should  never  be  used  as 
tooth-picks,  for  they  are  liable  to  injure  the  enamel. 

3  Called  parotid,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  near  the  ear.  These 
glands  are  sometimes  called  masticatory  glands,  as  they  are  only  found  in 
animals  furnished  with  grinding  or  masticating  teeth.  The  disease  known  as 
mumps  is  an  inflammation  of  one  or  both  of  these  glands. 


THE  CONVERSION  OF   FOOD   INTO  TISSUES. 


93 


^ 


whose  ducts  open  under  the  tongue  at  its  junction  with  -^ 
the  under  surface  of  the  mouth.     3d.  The  two  .si^fc^m^w^r^ 
■  which  are  the  smallest  of  the   salivary  glands,  and  are 
situated  under  the  tongue,  and  discharge  their  secretion 
by  ducts  near  the  opening  of  the 
ducts    from    the    sub-maxillary 
glands.^ 

The  .secretions  from  these 
glands,  together  with  that  from 
the  glands  of  the  general  mucous 
surface  of  the  mouth,  constitute 
the  sxdiva. /"This  secretion  is  a 
thin  alkaline  fluid,  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  dissolve  sapid  par- 
ticles of  food,  thus  enabling  us 

T_  to  taste,  to  soften  food  so  that  it 

s\»  may  be  the  more  readily  chewed 
^  and     swallowed,    to    keep    the 

mouth  moist  and   lubricated,  and,  finally,  to  transform 
some  of  the  starch  in  foocL/ 

From  one  to  three  pounds  of  saliva  are  secreted  per 
day  in  a  man  of  average  size,  the  quantity  increasing  with 
the  hardness  and  dryness  of  the  food.  It  is  also  increased 
by  the  movements  of  the  lower  jaw  in  mastication,  by 
anything  introduced  into  the  mouth,  but  especially  by 
those  things  which  stimulate  the  sense  of  taste.  Its  flow 
is  largely  under  the  influence  of  the  nervous  system.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  mere  thought  or  smell  of  agreeable  food 
will  "  make  the  mouth  water."  On  the  other,  under  the 
influence  of  anger,  fear,  etc.,  the  tongue,  in  its  dryness,  is 
said  to  "  cleave  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth." 


Fig.  44. 
Diagram  showing  the  location  and 
relations  of  the  salivary  glands  of 
the  left  side,  a  large  part  of  the 
lower  jaw  being  removed.  —  T,  the 
tongue ;  LJ,  part  of  the  lower  jaw ; 
PGr,  the  parotid  gland ;  SLO,  the 
sub-lingual  gland;  SMG,  the  sub- 
maxillary gland. 


1  Sometimes,  by  looking  into  a  mirror  at  the  reflection  of  one's  open  mouth, 
the  tongue  being  raised,  drops  of  saliva  may  be  seen  to  issue  from  the  openings 
of  the  ducts  under  the  tongue. 


94  DIGESTION. 

134.  The  pancreas  is  an  elongated  fleshy  organ  near  to, 
V.  and  just  behind  the  stomach.  It  secretes  the  pancreatic 
k^       jji^iceji  a  viscid,   alkaline   fluid  which  is  poured  into  the 

Y*    upper  portion  of  the  small  intestine,  as  before  stated.     It 
acts  principally  upon  the  fat  in  food. 

135.  The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body.  It 
secretes  the  bile,  which  is  carried  by  a  multitude  of  fine 
canals  within  the  substance  of  the  liver  into  a  main  tube 
which  opens  into  the  upper  part  of  the  small  intestine,  as 
before  described.  Part  of  the  bile,  however,  passes  through 
a  branch  of  this  main  tube  to  the  gall  bladder^  there  to  be 
stored  for  future  use.  'This  reservoir  is  a  pear-shaped 
bag,  about  three  inches  in  length,  attached  to  the  under 
side  of  the  liver. 

In  addition  to  the  secretion  of  bile,  the  liver  has  another 
function,  which  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  been 
especially  studied ;  viz.,  the  "glycogenic"  or  "sweet  pro- 
ducing" function,  so  named  from  the  substance  called 
glycogen.  Glycogen  is  formed  in  the  liver  from  the 
digested  materials  brought  to  that  organ  by  the  portal 
vein,  but  is  derived  mainly  from  the  starch  and  sugar 
absorbed  in  the  digestive  process.  It  is  formed  during 
digestion  and  stored  in  the  liver,  to  be  gradually  trans- 
formed, in  the  intervals  of  digestion,  into  glucose,  or  a 
sugar  similar  to  grape  sugar. 

136.  The  hile  is  of  a  bright  yellowish-green  color,  and 
is  constantly  secreted  ;  but  the  flow  is  increased  soon  after 
digestion  in  the  stomach  begins.  About  two  and  a  half 
pounds  are  secreted  per  day.  The  importance  of  the  bile 
is  shown  by  the  results  of  experiments  upon  the  lower 
animals,  and  by  the  disturbed  conditions  following  an 
interruption  of  its  usual  supply  in  the  human  being.  If 
the  bile  be  not  secreted,  or  be  prevented  from  entering 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  95 

the  small  intestine,  an  animal  will  become  very  feeble  and 
emaciated,  and  even  die.  It  is  known  that  the  bile  assists 
the  pancreatic  juice  in  preparing  fat  for  absorption,  that  it 
assists  in  the  prevention  of  decomposition  and  putrefac- 
tion of  food  during  its  passage  through  the  intestines,  and 
that  it  increases  the  muscular  action  of  the  intestines.  It 
is  in  part  thrown  off  as  an  excretion,  while  some  of  its 
constituents  are  re-absorbed,  to  be  converted  into  carbonic 
acid  and  water. 

137.  The  various  steps  by  which  food  is  converted  into 
the  tissues  of  the  body  are :  Mastication,  In  salivation,  De- 
glutition, Stomach  and  IntestinajL  Digestion,  Absorption, 
Circulation,  and  Assimilation. 

138.  When  food  has  been  received  into  the  mouth, 
and  cut  and  torn  by  the  incisor  and  other  teeth  into 
appropriate  pieces,  it  is  then  masticated  or  chewed,  and 
for  this  purpose,  by  the  action  of  the  tongue,  lips,  and 
cheeks,  is  rolled  about  the  mouth  and  placed  between  the 
lateral  teeth,  especially  the  molars,  and  is  mashed  and 
ground  up  into  minute  fragments.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
softened  by  insalivation^  or  a  thorough  mixture  with  the  ^  S. 
saliva ;  and  during^^this  process  part  of  the  cooked  starch  ^v^^ 
in  the  food  is  changed  into  dextriu^jUiiLthen  into  glucose,  ^'^ 
, and  is  thus  rendered  soluble,  (a.) 

This  change  is  effected  by  the  pty aline  of  the  saliva,  an 
organic  ingredient,  which  acts  as  a  ferment ;  ^.e.,  by  its 
presence,  under  the  favorable  circumstances  of  heat  and 
moisture,  it  changes  the  chemical  constitution  of  a  sub- 
stance for  which  it  has  an  affinity.^  The  action  of  yeast 
in  bread-making  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  action  of  a 
ferment.      The   change  in   starch  begun  in  the   alkaline 

1  Ferment  action  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  catalytic  action,  or  catalysis. 


96  DIGESTION. 

secretions  of  the  mouth  probably  ceases  as  the  food  reaches 
the  stomach,  but  is  resumed  amid  the  alkaline  secretions 
in  the  small  intestine. 

139.  The  food  having  been  jDroperly  prepared,  is  then 
moved  towards  the  pharynx  to  be  swallowed.  The  final 
steps  in  deglutition  are  involuntary.  As  the  food  or 
drink  enters  the  pharynx,  it  is  grasped  by  the  constrictor 
muscles  and  hurried  on  into  the  oesophagus, —  the  open- 
ings leading  to  the  lungs,  nasal  cavities,  and  ears  being 
usually  protected  from  its  ingress  by  the  approximation 
of  their  walls,  and  by  the  raising  of  the  soft  palate. 
If  the  mechanism  of  swallowing  is  disturbed  by  exces- 
sive laughing  or  talking,  or  by  rapid  swallowing,  food, 
especially  the  fluid  portion,  is  liable  to  enter  the  larynx  or 
nose,  and  cause  coughing,  sneezing,  and  sometimes  serious 
results  unless  prompt  aid  be  furnished.^ 

The  passage  of  the  food  or  drink  to  the  stomach  is  effect- 
ed by  means  of  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  oesophagus. 
This  action  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  overcome  the  laws 
of  gravitation.  Hence,  liquids  and  solids  may  some- 
times be  swallowed  indifferently  in  all  positions  of  the 

140.  Just  as  soon  as  the  food  reaches  the  stomach, 
stomach  digestion  begins.  The  mucous  membrane,  which 
in  the  intervals  of  digestion  is  of  a  pale  red  color,  now 
becomes  bright  red  from  its  engorgement  with  blood.  The 
gastric  juice  is  poured  out  in  abundance.^    It  dissolves  the 

1  Sometimes,  for  example,  particles  of  meat  going  the  "wrong  way,"  lodge 
in  the  larynx  and  cause  death  by  suffocation.     (See  Emergencies,  p.  321.) 

2  Even  standing  on  the  head,  as  jugglers  often  do. 

3  A  portion  of  the  gastric  secretions  {i.e.,  gastric  juice  and  mucus),  inter- 
mingled with  the  softened  and  partly  digested  food,  passes  into  the  intestines, 
while  the  remainder  is  absorbed  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach, 
to  be  again  secreted  when  necessary. 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  97 

connective  tissue  of  meat,  releases  fat  from  its  envelopes 
by  breaking  them  up,  and  transforms  some  of  the  albu- 
minous material,  such  as  lean  meat,  the  gluten  of  wheat, 
and  white  of  eggs,  into  albuminose,  in  which  form  such 
articles  are  capable  of  being  absorbed.^  This  transforma- 
tion is  effected  by  the  ferment  action  of  an  organic 
ingredient  of  the  gastric  juice  known  as  ^epsine^^  in  con- 
nection with  an  acid  ingredient;  for,  if  this  acid  be 
neutralized  by  an  alkali,  pepsine  is  of  little  value. 

141.  'While  the  above  processes  are  being  carried  on, 
the  fluid  portion  of  the  food,  both  that  which  has  entered 
the  stomach  as  fluid,  and  that  which  has  been  liquefied  by 
stomach  digestion,  is  rapidly  taken  up  by  the  absorbents 
of  the  stomach  and  carried  into  the  blood,  while  the  more 
solid  portions  are  thoroughly  intermingled  with  the  gastric 
secretions  by  the  churning  action  of  the  muscles  of„the 
stomach. 

142.  The  unabsorbed  food  begins  slowly  to  leave  the 
stomach  in  about  half  an  hour  after  its  introduction, 
in  the  form  of  a  gray  semi-fluid,  usually  called  chy^me. 
This  is  a  mixture  "oT^ome  of  the  sugar  and  salts  of  the 
food,  of  transformed  starch  or  glucose,  of  softened  starch, 
of  broken  fat  and  connective  tissue,  and  of  albuminose. 

143.  The,,  entire  digestion  of  an  ordinary  meal  in  the 
stomach  requires  from  two  to  four  hours.^     Some  foods 

are  thoroughly  digested,  so  far  as  the  stomach  is  concerned,     ^ 

in  one  hour,  and  some  require  as  much  as  five  hours.  («.) 

-^      ^ 

1  The  term  "peptone"  is  also  applied  to  albuminous  material  which  has  \  >A 
been  rendered  soluble  by  digestion. 

2  Pepsine,  obtained  generally  from  the  stomachs  of  pigs,  is  used  as  an 
artificial  digestant  in  certain  forms  of  dyspepsia. 

3  Substances  more  or  less  indigestible  are  acted  upon  with  difficulty.  Some- 
times they  are  thrown  up,  or  pass,  after  many  hours,  into  the  small  intestine, 
causing  suffering. 


0 

98  DIGESTION. 

The  duration  of  stomach  digestion  varies  also  in  different 
persons,  and  in  the  same  persons  at  different  periods.  It 
depends  in  a  great  measure,  not  only  upon  the  kind  and 
quantity  of  food  taken,  but  also  upon  the  condition  of 
the  nervous  system,  the  amount  of  exercise,  etc. 

144.  The  chyme,  upon  entering  the  intestine,  comes  in 
contact  with  the  bile  and  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal 
juices.  Intestinal  digestion  now  commences.  By  means  of 
these  various  fluids  most  of  the  food  not  already  softened 
is  dissolved.  The  transformation  of  starch  into  glucose  is 
continued  by  the  action  of  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal 
juices.^  The  change  of  albuminous  materials  into  albumi- 
nose  is  now  completed  by  the  pancreatic,  assisted  probably 
by  the  intestinal  secretions,  while  fat  is  broken  up  into 
minute  globules,  and  an  emulsion  formed  by  the  pancreatic 
juice,  assisted,  as  some  believe,  by  the  bile.^ 

From  the  digestion  in  the  small  intestine  there  result 
"  three  different  substances ;  viz. :  1st.  Peptone,  from_the 
digestion  of  albuminous  matters ;  2d.  Chyle,  from  the 
emulsion  of  the  fats ;  and  3d.  Glucose,  produced  by  the 
transformation  of  starch."^  These  substances  are,  to  a 
large  extent,  carried  into  the  blood  and  become  a  part 
of  it,  while  the  undigested  food  passes  on  into  the  large 
intestine.* 


1  The  opportunities  for  the  study  of  intestinal  digestion  have  been  fewer 
than  for  that  of  other  portions  of  the  digestive  tract ;  hence,  less  is  known 
about  it,  and  at  the  present  time  (1884)  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  intestinal 
digestion  is  more  complicated  than  it  has  been  supposed  to  be.  The  pancreatic 
juice,  for  example,  is  believed  to  have  thi'ee  active  principles,  —  one  to  digest 
starch,  one  to  act  upon  flesh  and  similar  foods,  and  one  to  ' '  cause  the  decom- 
position of  the  neutral  fats  with  the  liberation  of  a  fatty  acid." 

2  "Pancreatine,"  obtained  from  the  pancreas  of  animals,  is  much  used  as 
an  artificial  digestant. 

3  Dalton's  Human  Physioloijy.    7th  edition.     1882. 

4  The  passage  of  the  food  through  the  small  intestine  is  said  to  occupy,  on 
the  average,  about  twelve  hours. 


THE  CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES. 


99 


145.  Absorption,  or  the  process  by  which  liquefied  and 
transformed  food  is  taken  up  by  the  veins  and  lacteals,  is 
effected  by  en H osmosis.^  By 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  stom- 
ach, water,  and  whatever  is 
dissolved  in  the  gastric  juice, 
—  viz.,  some  of  the  albumi- 
noids, sugars,  and  salts,  —  are 
rapidly  absorbed  and  carried 
by  the  blood  in  the  portal  vein 
to  the  liver,  together  with  the 
peptone,  glucose,  and  mole- 
cular fat  which  has  reached 
the  portal  vein  through  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  intestinal 
villi.  This  blood,  after  tra- 
versing the  liver,  reaches  the 
right  side  of  the  heart.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  chyle,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  emulsified 
fat,  but  combined  with  other 
digested  materials,  passes 
through  the  lacteals  into  the 
thoracic  duct,  together  with 
the  "lymph "2  from  the  lower 
portions  of  the  body,  and  is 
conveyed  to  the  left  sub- 
clavian vein,  and  so  into  the 
blood.3  (Fig.  45.) 


A  diagrammatic  representation  of 
various  organs  concerned  in  the  conver- 
sion of  food  into  blood.  —  1,  The  sali- 
vary glands;  2,  the  oesophagus;  3,  the 
stomach ;  4,  a  portion  of  the  small  intes- 
tine; 5,  pancreas;  6,  the  liver;  7,  the 
lacteals;  8,  receptacle  of  the  chyle;  9, 
the  portal  vein  and  its  branches ;  10,  he- 
patic veins  leading  from  the  liver  to  the 
large  ascending  vein  ;  11,  the  thoracic 
duct;  12,  the  large  ascending  vein,  cut 
off  at  its  junction  with  the  heart;  13,  the 
large  descending  vein,  cut  off  in  like 
manner ;  14,  the  thoracic  duct  emptying 
its  contents  into  the  left  subclavian  vein. 


1  See  Introduction,  §  8. 

2  A  fluid  containing  some  of  the  results  of  the  decay  of  tissues,  which  is 
conveyed  to  the  blood  by  the  lymphatics. 

3  It  is  said  that  the  mixed  lymph  and  chyle  move  through  the  thoracic  duct 
at  the  rate  of  about  twelve  inches  a  minute,  that  the  flow  is  aided  by  valves  in 
the  duct,  and  th?,t,abpiit^ix.lbs.  pas§„tJirou^h  ip  t\Yenty-fpiir  hours. 


100  DIGESTION. 

146.  The  process  by  which  the  blood  carries  the  digested 
materials  to  the  various  tissues  of  the  body  is  known  as 
the  circulation^  and  that  by  which  each  cell  and  tissue 
appropriates  material  so  brought  for  its  growth  and  de- 
velopment is  termed  assimilation. 

147.  The  changes  which  the  transformed  and  digested 
food  undergoes  after  it  reaches  the  blood  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  Albuminose  is  in  all  probability,  for  the  most 
part,  converted  into  the  albumen  of  the  blood  and  the 
albuminous  portions  of  the  tissues,  and  is  discharged  from 
the  body  in  the  excretions  as  urea,  creatinine,  etc.  Glucose 
(resulting  from  the  digestion  of  sugar  and  starch)  and 
fatty  matters,  after  serving  in  the  main  to  build  up  the 
adipose  and  other  soft  tissues  of  the  body,  are  eliminated 
chiefly  as  carbonic  acid  and  water.  On  the  other  hand, 
water  and  the  mineral  Ingredients  of  food,  as  a  rule,  pass 
through  the  system  unchanged  after  having  afforded 
necessary  fluidity,  strength,  or  alkalinity  to  various  tissues 
and  fluids,  as  the  case  may  be. 

148.  In  healthy  digestion  the  food  which  cannot  be 
assimilated  or  converted  into  heat,  energy,  and  strength,  is 
ordinarily  eliminated  with  ease  by  the  excretory  organs. 
But,  if  the  bodily  powers  be  overtaxed  by  food,  inappro- 
priate as  to  quantity  or  quality,  the  extra  eliminating 
work  demanded,  especially  of  the  kidneys  and  liver,  may 
seriously  derange  the  overtaxed  organs. 

149.  For  digestion  to  be  normally  carried  on,  it  is  evi- 
dent, from  what  has  already  been  said,  that  the  digestive 
organs  must  be  normal  in  structure  and  capable  of  the 
necessary  muscular  movements.  Their,  secretions  must 
be  perfect  as  to  quality  and  quantity,  f  Gastric  juice,  for 
example,  will  not  act  as  a  solvent  if  its  Wid  is  neutralized 


^V 


THE   CONVERSION   OF   FOOD   INTO   TISSUES.  101 

by  an  alkali.  So  of  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices, 
if  their  alkaline  nature  is  destroyed  by  the  undue  presence 
of  acids.^ 

The  food  also  must  be  just  sufficient,  and  so  cooked  or 
otherwise  prepared  that  it  can  be  acted  upon  with  ease 
by  the  digestive  organs  and  their  secretions.  It  must  be 
thoroughly  chewed,  with  freedom  from  anxiety,  slowly 
swallowed,  and  be  taken  at  regular  intervals,  and  not  im- 
mediately before  sleep  or  great  physical  or  mental  effort. 
Broken  or  decayed  teeth,  or  a  defective  number  of  them, 
sore  mouth  or  throat,  neuralgia  of  the  face,  the  waste  of 
saliva  by  the  habit  of  expectoration,  torpidity  of  the 
muscles  of  the  alimentary  canal,  defective  action  of  the 
glands  concerned  in  digestion,  impediments  in  ducts,  etc., 
all  interfere  with  proper  digestion  and  nutrition. ^ 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  processes  are  generally  termed  "  vital,"  and  how  are  they 

essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life  ? 

2.  What  is  digestion,  and  what  are  the  digestive  organs  ? 

3.  Describe  the  alimentary  canal,  and  name  its  different  portions. 

4.  What  begins  the  alimentary  canal,  and  what  is  there  secreted  ? 

5.  Describe  the  pharynx,  and  state  what  opens  into  it. 

6.  What  are  the  constrictors  of  the  pharynx,  and  their  object? 

7.  Describe  the  oesophagus,  and  its  object  and  mode  of  action. 

8.  Describe  the  stomach  and  its  openings. 

9.  How  are  the  intestines  divided?    Describe  the  small  intestine. 

10.  What  is  the  mesentery,  and  its  use  ? 

11.  How  is  the  movement  of  the  food  in  the  intestine  effected? 

12.  Describe  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine,  and  state  its 

object,  and  how  it  is  increased  in  extent. 


1  The  lesson  of  moderation  in  the  use  of  alkalies  and  acids  is  self-evident. 

2  Hence,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  difficult  digestion,  or  "dys- 
pepsia," demands  for  its  relief  something  more  than  specific  medicines. 


102  DIGESTION. 

13.  What  gives  it  its  plush-like  appearance?    Describe  the  villi,  and 

state  what  they  contain. 

14.  Describe  the  lacteals. 

15.  Of  what  use  are  the  follicles  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 

intestine  ? 

16.  What  secretions  enter  the  intestine  near  the  pylorus,  and  from 

what? 

17.  Describe  the  large  intestine,  the  coecum  and  its  appendage. 

18.  What  are  the  accessory  organs  of  digestion  ? 

19.  What  are  the  uses  of  teeth?    Name  and  describe  the  different 

parts  of  a  tooth. 

20.  What  kinds  of  teeth  are  there,  and  what  are  their  different  uses  ? 

21.  How  do  the  jaws  act  in  chewing? 

22.  What  do  human  teeth  indicate  as  to  the  proper  food  of  man  ? 

23.  Why  should  care  be  taken  of  the  temporary  or  first  set  of  teeth  ? 

24.  How  should  teeth  be  preserved  ? 

25.  Describe  the  salivary  glands,  and  theii-  secretion. 

26.  Describe  the  pancreas  and  its  secretion. 

27.  Describe  the  liver  and  gall  bladder. 

28.  Describe  the  secretions  of  the  liver. 

29.  What  are  the  various  steps  in  the  process  of  the  conversion  of  food 

into  tissue  ?    Describe  them. 

30.  What  is  the  chyme?     The  chyle? 

31.  How  are  the  fatty  matters  in  food  converted  into  an  emulsion  ? 

32.  Where  does  absorption  take  place,  and  by  what  processes  are  sub- 

stances taken  out  of  the  alimentary  canal  ? 

33.  How  do  the  absorbed  products  of   digestion  reach  the  general 

circulation  ? 

34.  What  changes  are  effected  after  they  have  reached  the  blood? 

35.  What  is  assimilation  ? 

36.  What  is  necessary  to  healthy  digestion? 


ANALYSIS. 


103 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE  EIGHTH  CHAPTER. 

DIGESTION.— THE    CONVERSION    OF    FOOD    INTO 
TISSUES. 


I.  Organs   - 


Alimentary  ^ 
canal 


r  Mouth. 
Pharynx. 
Oesophagus. 
Stomach. 
Small  intestine. 
Large  intestine. 


Accessory 
organs 


II.  Steps  or  Processes  .  . 


'  Uses. 
Structure. 


f>U>) 


f  Incisors. 

VarietieJ  Canines. 
V  arieties  <  Bicuspids 

t  Molars. 

Arrangement. 

Preservation . 

Parotid. 

Sub-maxillary. 

Sub-lingual. 

Of  the  mucous  membrane  of 

the  mouth. 


r  Teeth  .  .  ^ 


Salivary 
glands 

Liver 

Pancreas 

Organs  of  absorption, — veins  &  lacteals. 

Organs  of  assimilation,  —  cells. 

r  Mastication. 
Insalivation. 
Deglutition. 
Stomach  digestion. 
Intestinal  digestion. 

isSaSon}  Circulation. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

150.  The  term  food  in  a  physiological  sense  includes 
all  substances,  solid  or  fluid,  which,  when  introduced  into 
the  system,  will  nourish  some  part  of  it,  or  will  supply 
heat,  or  nervous  or  other  animal  force,  or  aid  in  the  due 
discharge  of  the  various  processes  which  take  place  in  the 
body.  Some  kinds  of  food — preeminently  milk  —  will 
accomplish  all  these  results. 

151.  Food,  both  that  which  directly  sustains  cell  life 
by  supplying  material  for  cell  growth  and  development, 
and  also  that  which,  like  the  fuel  of  an  engine,  is  con- 
verted into  heat  and  force,  is  sometimes  called  positive 
food.  Substances  which  assist  the  vital  processes  by  facili- 
tating the  assimilation  of  other  substances,  or  by  retarding 
the  waste  of  tissues,  are  known  as  negative  foods. 

152.  Food  is  furnished  to  us  by  all  the  kingdoms  of 
nature;  and,  as  our  knowledge  extends,  new  food  prod- 
ucts are  discovered.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the 
ordinary  food  supply  of  different  countries  varies  in  kind 
and  quantity,^  and  that  substances  highly  esteemed  by 
some  portions  of  our  race  are  repulsive  to  us,  while  some 

1  "  Lists  of  possible  eatables  are  most  interesting  to  the  student  of  human 
nature;  they  lead  to  inferences  as  to  the  action  of  laws,  religions,  customs,  and 
associations,  in  making  that  abominable  to  one  race  which  is  most  highly 
appreciated  by  another;  and  they  are  an  important  part  of  the  arguments  of 
those  who  trace  political  events  and  national  character  to  physical  causes."  — 
Manuel  of  Diet.    Thomas  King  Chambers. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  105 

of  our  most  valued  foods  are  considered  by  others  as  even 
poisonous.^  Unlike  the  lower  animals,  man  can  prepare 
by  sifting,  grinding,  cooking,  etc.,  such  food  as  he  cannot 
or  does  not  care  to  eat  in  its  natural  state ;  and  is  enabled 
to  remove  what  may  be  hurtful,  and  to  retain  for  himself 
what  is  beneficial. 

Much,  however,  that  is  indigestible  and  innutritious  in 
food  substance  is  more  or  less  important,  in  moderate 
amount,  to  stimulate  the  digestive  organs.  Food  too  much 
refined,  or  deprived  altogether  of  coarser  ingredients,  such 
as  bran  and  the  skins  of  small  fruits,  is  not  the  best 
adapted  to  persons  in  health,  (a.) 

153.  Food  may  be  considered  as  organic  and  inorganic^ 
—  or,  that  which  is  obtained  from  living  organisms,  whether 
animals  or  plants,  and  that  which  is  derived  directly  from 
unorganized  bodies,  as  air,  water,  and  earth.  The  chemical 
elements  of  which  the  human  body  is  composed,  and  which 
must  therefore  be  supplied  to  it  by  food,  are  said  to  be 
fourteen  in  number.^  The  principal  of  these  are  nitrogen, 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen. 

154.  Organic  food  substances  are  divisible  into  two 
groups  of  alimentary  principles  or  constituents ;  viz.,  the 
nitrogenous  or  albuminoid,  and  the  non-7iitrogenous  or  car- 
bonaceous. The  first  group  comprises  such  substances  as 
albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein.     They  are  called  nitrogenons 


1  Certain  tribes  of  Indians  in  South  America  eat  at  times  a  peculiar  kind  of 
clay.  Beetles  were  eaten  by  Roman  epicures,  and  are  said  also  to  be  eaten  by 
Turkish  women  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  themselves.  Bees,  moths,  ants, 
mice,  and  many  small  animals  form  staple  articles  of  diet  in  some  parts  of  the 
world.  Humboldt  tells  us  that  centipedes  are  eaten  with  avidity  by  some  of 
the  natives  of  South  America. 

-  The  elements  are  :  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  phosphorus,  sul- 
phur, silicon,  chlorine,  fluorine,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and 
iron. 


106  FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

because  they  contain  nitrogen.^  From  their  resemblance 
to  albumen,  the  most  prominent  member  of  the  group, 
they  are  also  called  albuminoids.  The  second  group  com- 
prises fats,  sugars,  and  starches,  which  are  distinguished 
as  non-nitrogenous  or  carbonaceous,  because  they  do  not 
contain  nitrogen,  and  have  carbon  as  a  prominent  ingre- 
dient.2  There  are  a  few  organic  alimentary  principles 
which  cannot  be  grouped  as  above ;  such  are  the  vegetable 
acids  and  pectin,  or  vegetable  jelly.  The  inorganic  food 
substances  comprise  water  and  various  chemical  salts,  the 
principal  of  which  are  common  salt,  and  the  salts  of  soda, 
potassa,  and  lime. 

155.  Albuminoid  compounds  exist  not  only  in  nearly 
every  animal  fluid  and  tissue,  but  also  in  vegetables, 
especially  the  cereal  grains ;  and  accordingly  these  grains 
may  sometimes  be  substituted  for  animal  food.  While  the 
nitrogenous  constituents  of  vegetable  food  are  similar  to 
those  in  animal  food,  their  relative  quantity  is  much 
smaller,  and  the  indigestible  residue  of  vegetable  food 
is  much  larger  in  amount. 

156.  From  the  presence  of  albuminous  substances  in 
the  animal  economy,  the  necessity  of  a  due  supply  of 
albuminoids  in  food  is  self  evident,  yet  they  cannot  of 
themselves  alone  support  life.  Animals  fed  exclusively  on 
any  one  of  them  lose  appetite,  become  emaciated,  and  die 
of  starvation.     Though  they  are  of  great  importance,  and 

1  Besides  nitrogen,  they  contain  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon,  and  in  some 
instances,  (as  in  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein),  sulphur  also.  They  are  some- 
times called  "proteids,"  "protein  compounds,"  " proteinaceous  alimentary 
principles,"  "organic  substances  proper,"  etc. 

2  The  fats  are  sometimes  si>oken  of  as  the  hydro-carbons,  and  the  starches 
and  sugars  as  carbo-hydrates.  The  terms  "calorific,"  "combustibles," 
"respiratory,"  "fat  forming,"  and  "heat  producing,"  are  sometimes  applied 
to  the  "  second  group "  of  organic  food  constituents.  They  are  composed  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 


/ 

FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  107 

exhaustion  follows  more  rapidly  Avlien  they  are  withheld 
than  when  the  body  is  deprived  of  certain  other  food  con- 
stituents, yet  to  distinguish  them  as  "the  nutritious" 
elements  of  food  is  misleading.^ 

The  more  permanent  tissues  of  the  body  are  undoubt- 
edly more  readily  constructed  from  the  albuminous  than 
from  the  carbonaceous  food  substances,  and  by  the  con- 
version of  the  former  into  tissues,  force  is  mainly  produced. 
Still,  recent  researches  by  Fick,  Wislicenus,  and  others 
show  that  the  changes  carbonaceous  foods  undergo  in  the 
body  not  only  afford  the  most  heat,  but  considerable  force 
also. 

157.  Albuminous  substances  can  be  eaten  for  a  longer 
time  without  loathing  than  most  other  food  constituents. 
The  foods  which  contain  them,  especially  meat,  are  also 
for  the  most  part  palatable,  and  give  us  the  "  sensations  of 
energy,  of  feeling  up  to  the  mark,  of  being  equal  to  work, 
which  are  so  pleasant  to  all."  (a.)  Hence  they  are  apt  to  be 
consumed  in  too  large  quantities,  and  the  stimulus  afforded 
by  such  food  is  quite  often  obtained  at  the  risk  of  bilious- 
ness and  gout,  for  the  waste  products,  resulting  from  the 
digestion  of  so  much  nitrogenous  food,  are  not  thoroughly 
eliminated  from  the  body,  and  act  as  poisons  in  the 
blood.  Especially  is  this  the  case  if  there  is  insuffi- 
cient exercise,  if  the  digestive  secretions  are  not  sufficiently 
abundant  or  active,  or  the  liver  and  kidneys  are  not  in 
healthy  working  order. 

158.  The  nitrogenous  constituents  are  not  crystallizable ; 
they  exist  mainly  in  a  fluid  or  semi-solid  condition ;  they 

1  The  idea  that  albuminoids  were  alone  the  "tissue  making,"  "  flesh  form- 
ing" or  "plastic,"  and  therefore  the  "nutritious"  elements,  has  been  taught 
by  physiologists  until  recently.  It  was  advocated  by  Baron  von  Liebig,  who 
was  among  the  first  to  attempt  a  scientific  classification  of  food. 


108  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

coagulate,  i.e.  become  solid,  under  certain  conditions,  for 
example,  on  exposure  to  air,  heat,  or  acids ;  under  favor- 
able circumstances  they  act  as  ferments,  and  are  them- 
selves liable  to  putrefy  and  to  transformations  under  the 
influence  of  ferments.^  The  process  of  putrefaction,  by 
which  the  substances  soften,  liquefy,  and  decompose, 
requires  for  its  inception  and  continuation,  access  of 
atmosplieric  air,  or  of  some  fluid  containing  oxygen,  the 
presence  of  moisture,  and  a  moderately  elevated  tempera- 
ture. The  process  is  accomplished  by  the  growth  and 
multiplication  of  a  microscopic  vegetable  organism  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  bacterium.  Canning  of  food,  especially 
if  it  has  been  partially  cooked,  desiccation,  or  thorough 
drying,  freezing,  and  also  heating  to  about  the  tem- 
perature of  boihng  water,  are  methods  by  which  the 
decomposition  of  albuminoid  matter  and  the  activity  of 
bacteria  can  be  prevented,  and  the  preservation  of  food 
effected,  (a.) 

159.  The  princijDal  albuminoid  constituents  of  animal 
food  are  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein .  of  vegetable  food, 
albumen,  gluten,  and  casein.^ 

Albumen  is  found  in  flesh,  blood,  milk,  seeds,  and  grains, 
but  its  purest  form  is  the  white  of  eggSo 

Fibrin  ^  is  found  in  the  blood,  lymph,  and  chyle,  and  in 
some  of  the  semi-solid  animal  tissues,  and  in  some  of  the 
vegetable    juices.      From    bones    there    is    extracted    an 

1  Casein  of  milk,  for  instance,  after  exposure  for  a  time  to  a  warm  atmos- 
phere, becomes  a  ferment,  and  sours  tlie  milk  by  converting  the  sugar  o^  uao 
milk  into  lactic  acid. 

2  Other  albuminoid  constituents  are:  myosine,  in  muscle;  chondrine,  in 
cartilage;  and  elastine,  in  elastic  tissue.  There  are  also  the  ferments,  ptyalina, 
pepsine,  etc.,  and  coloring  matters  such  as  the  hemoglobine  of  the  blood, 
bilirubine  and  biliverdine  of  the  bile. 

3  Within  the  last  few  years  physiologists  have  been  led  to  believe  that 
the  term  "fibrin"  should  be  alone  applied  to  the  coagulated  ingredient 
"fibrinogen." 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  109 

albuminous  principle  known  as  gelatine^  which  is  often 
given  to  invalids  in  the  form  of  jelly. ^ 

Gluten  exists  in  variable  quantity  in  the  cereal  grains, 
being  most  abundant  in  wheat  (10  to  35  per  cent).  It  is 
this  that  gives  to  dough  its  adhesive  character.  It  is  a 
liighly  nutritious  compound,  and  is  composed  of  vegetable 
albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein,  together  with  oil  and  inorganic 
matter. 2 

Casein  exists  in  milk,  and  in  a  coagulated  form  becomes 
cheese.  It  is  also  extracted  from  beans,  peas,  and  similar 
vegetables,  and  is  then  known  as  vegetable  casein  or 
"  legumine."  ^ 

160.  The  organic  non-nitrogenous  food  constituents  — 
fat,  sugar,  and  starch*  —  are  of  more  importance  than  is 
generally  believed.  The  Tyrolese  chamois  hunters,  it  is 
said,  find  that  they  can  endure  greater  fatigue  with  beef 
fat  as  their  food  than  with  the  same  weight  of  lean  meat. 
The  strength  of  the  Hindoo  and  of  the  Irishman,  the  one 
living  mainly  on  rice  and  the  other  on  potatoes,  is  well 
known.  Still,  the  amount  necessary  of  such  foods  to 
furnish  that  strength  is  very  large  in  comparison  with  that 

1  In  1841  the  physiologist  Magendie,  in  connection  with  a  French  committee 
of  investigation,  showed  that  animals  fed  on  pure  albumen,  iibrin,  or  gelatine, 
lost  their  appetites  and  died,  with  all  the  evidences  of  starvation,  about  the 
twentieth  day.  On  the  other  hand,  raw  bones,  containing,  as  they  do,  fat, 
albumen,  water,  and  salts,  as  well  as  gelatine,  are  capable  of  supporting  life. 

2  By  the  gelatine  committee  referred  to  above,  it  was  proved  that  dogs 
could  live  and  be  nourished  on  gluten  alone  for  an  indefinite  time.  Pereira 
says  of  it,  "Gluten  is  easy  of  digestion,  and  substances  which  contain  it  largely 
are  readily  digested  by  invalids  and  dyspeptics." 

3  "The  article  called  tao-foo,  made  by  the  Chinese  from  peas,  is  apparently 
identical  with  cheese."  —  Text-Book  ofFhysiolof/y.    Flint. 

*  These  constituents  were  called  by  Liebig  the  respiratory ,  from  his  belief 
that  in  the  body  their  carbonaceous  elements  were  the  sole  sources  of  heat, 
and  only  useful  to  produce  it  by  being  slowly  burned  up  in  respiration  by  con- 
tact with  the  respired  oxygen  of  the  air,  just  as  heat  in  ordinary  combustion 
is  pi'oduced  by  the  combination  of  the  carbonaceous  materials  of  wood,  coal, 
fats,  oils,  etc.,  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere. 


110  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

required  by  a  mixed  animal  and  vegetable  diet.  Necessary 
as  the  organic  non-nitrogenous  constituents  are,  like  the 
albuminoids  and  other  alimentary  principles,  none  of  them 
alone  will  support  life. 

161.  Fat  is  chiefly  obtained  from  animals  in  the  form 
of  adipose  tissue,  the  cream  of  milk,  or  as  fish  oil.  Many 
vegetable  substances  also  contain  fat,  especially  oats  and 
Indian  corn,  cocoa,  beans,  walnuts,  butternuts,  and  the 
berries  of  the  olive  tree.  The  digestibility  of  fat  varies 
with  individuals,  and  with  the  kind  eaten ;  some  persons 
dispose  easily  of  that  of  bacon  or  beef,  while  others  readily 
digest  fresh  butter  only.  Animal  fat  is,  as  a  rule,  not  so 
easily  digested  as  vegetable  oils.  Some  kinds  of  fat,  not 
being  pure,  easily  decompose  on  exposure  to  air ;  or,  on 
being  heated,  acids  are  produced  which  sometimes  prove 
very  indigestible  and  irritating  if  received  into  the  system. 

The  heat-producing  property  of  fat  renders  it  especially 
valuable  in  cold  weather  and  in  cold  climates,  where  it  is 
eaten  by  the  inhabitants  in  enormous  quantities,  four  to 
five  pounds  per  day  being  the  ordinary  amount  for  the 
average  adult,  (a.)  Sailors,  who  may  be  averse  to  fatty 
food,  when  wintering  in  the  Arctic  regions,  as  a  rule,  learn 
to  drink  freely  of  oil,  and  to  enjoy  the  fat  portions  of  the 
seal,  walrus,  and  other  marine  animals.  On  the  other 
hand,  fat  is  much  used  in  hot  countries  in  the  shape  of 
vegetable  and  fish  oils,  especially  when  meat  is  scarce  or 
is  prohibited  by  religious  opinions.  (6.) 

162.  Fat  is  especially  necessary  when  growth  is  most 
rapid ;  for  its  presence  in  the  body  seems  to  be  essential  to 
cell  growth.  It  is  claimed  by  many  eminent  physicians 
that  fat  eaten  in  sufficient  quantity  is  a  preventive  of 
much  of  that  defective   nutrition  which  finally  ends  in 


FOOD. — DIETETICS.  Ill 

chronic  nervous  diseases,  and  in  scrofula  and  consumption.^ 
On  the  contrary,  too  large  a  quantity  of  carbonaceous 
food,  sugar  and  starch  as  well  as  fat,  is  not  readily  dis- 
posed of  in  the  body,  but  produces  skin  eruptions,  unduly 
increases  the  adipose  tissue,  especially  about  the  heart  and 
other  organs,  and  thus  impairs  health. 

163.  Starchy  when  pure,  is  a  fine  white  powder,  which 
under  the  microscope  is  seen  to  consist  of  granules. 
These  vary  in  size  and  form,  according  to  the  kind  of 
starch.^  Starch  is  found  distributed  through  the  vegetable 
kingdom  in  cells  and  among  fibres,  in  tubers,  seeds,  stems, 
and  fruit.  It  is  especially  abundant  in  the  cereals,  also 
in  potatoes,  chestnuts,  beans,  pease,  and  lentils.^  Arrow 
root,  tapioca,  and  sago,  which  are  extractions  from  various 
plants,  are  nearly  pure  specimens  of  starch. 

164.  Starch  is  not  affected  by  cold  water.  But  if 
heated  with  water,  the  granules  absorb  it,  swell,  and  form 
a  mucilaginous  mass  or  stiff  jelly.  When  boiled  with 
several  times  their  volume  of  water,  the  granules  burst, 

1  "  This  is  probably  one  of  the  reasons  of  the  craving  of  children  in  our 
climate  for  butter,  which  presents  oily  matter  to  the  digestion  in  an  easily 
assimilable  form,  and  is  evidently  a  valuable  dietetic  agent." 

It  is  probably  true  that  most  of  the  persons  who  are  benefited  in  this  coun- 
try by  cod-liver  oil,  in  Switzerland  by  neat's-foot  oil,  and  in  Russia  by  train- 
oil,  would  not  need  these  oils  as  medicine  if  their  food  had  contained  sufficient 
oil  or  fat. 

2  •'  They  cannot  be  distinctly  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  are  so  extremely 
minute  that  the  finest  wheat  flour,  which  has  been  ground  to  an  impalpable 
dust,  contains  its  starch  granules  mostly  unbroken  and  perfect.  The  granules 
of  potato  starch  are  the  largest,  while  those  of  wheat  and  rice  are  much  smaller, 
varying  all  the  way  from  the  3  ^ oth  to  loio  o^b  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Assum- 
ing the  grains  of  wheat  starch  to  be  y^Vofli  of  ^n  inch  in  diameter,  a  thousand 
million  of  them  would  be  contained  in  a  cubic  inch  of  space."  —  Hand  Book 
of  Household  Science.    Youmans. 

3  "  It  forms  at  least  one-seventh  of  the  whole  substance  of  the  potato,  about 
one-third  of  peas  and  beans,  over  one-half  of  wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  and  at  least 
three-quarters  of  rice  and  Indian  corn."  —  Dalton's  Treatise  on  Human 
Physiolocpj. 


112  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

become  transparent,  and  lose  their  individuality.  On  cool- 
ing, a  homogeneous  pasty  mass  is  formed,  in  which  the 
granules  are  not  visible. 

By  the  absorption  of  water  and  subsequent  cooking,  the 
starch  is  partly  changed  into  dextrine,  in  which  form  the 
necessary  process  in  digestion,  of  conversion  into  glucose 
by  means  of  the  saliva  and  intestinal  juice,  is  more  readily 
effected.  Hence,  starchy  foods  are  most  digestible  when 
thoroughly  cooked.  During  the  process  of  germination  of 
fruits  and  vegetables,  a  part  of  their  starchy  contents  is 
also  changed  into  dextrine  by  the  action  of  a  peculiar 
vegetable  substance  known  as  diastase.  It  is  for  this  reason 
mainly  that  ripe  fruit  is  more  digestible  than  unripe. 

165.  Though  starch  is,  in  general,  promptly  trans- 
formed by  the  digestive  process,  yet,  if  taken  in  a  very 
large  quantity,  or  too  frequently,  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
food  material,  fermentation  results,  and  the  appetite  is 
weakened  and  digestion  impaired.  Persons,  therefore, 
living  chiefly  on  bread  and  tea,  or  on  bread  and  potatoes, 
or,  as  sometimes  happens  in  the  case  of  young  children, 
upon  arrow  root  and  corn  starch,  often  suffer  from  an 
''  acid  stomach."  For  these  reasons  starchy  foods  should 
be  given  sparingly,  if  at  all,  to  children  under  four  months 
of  age ;  that  is,  until  a  sufficiency  of  saliva  and  intestinal 
juice  is  secreted. 

166.  Entering  into  the  composition  of  certain  vegetables 
are  substances  allied  to  starch,  but  differing  somewhat  as 
to  properties,  and  having  comparatively  but  little  value 
as  food.  Of  these,  gum,  mucilages,  and  pectin,  or  vege- 
table jelly,  are  examples. ^ 

1  These  substances  are  sometimes  classified  as  the  amylaceous  comjwiinds, 
i.e.  resembling  starch,  — to  distinguish  them  from  the  oleaginous  group  of  sub- 
stances ;  viz.,  fats  and  oils,  and  the  saccharine  group,  — or  the  sugars.  Cel- 
lulose, lichenine  and  inuline,  besides  many  other  substances,  belong  to  the 
amylaceous  compounds. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  113 

167.  Sugar  is  closely  related  to  starch  in  chemical 
composition,  bnt  is  distinguished  by  its  sweet  taste,  its 
solubility  in  water,  and  the  crystallization  which  occurs 
upon  boiling  a  watery  solution.  Some  varieties  of  sugar 
readily  ferment,  that  is  to  say,  decompose  and  are  con- 
verted into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  on  exposure  to  heat 
and  moisture,  or  in  the  presence  of  an  organized  substance 
known  as  yeast. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  sugar.  The  most  import- 
ant of  these  are  cane  sugar,  glucose  or  grape  sugar,  and 
milk  sugar?-  Of  these  varieties  cane  sugar  is  the  sweetest 
and  most  soluble. 

Sugar  is  a  valuable  food,  and  serves  to  render  other 
foods  more  palatable ;  but,  if  taken  in  excess,  or  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  foods,  it  may  make  the  consumer 
unduly  fat,  interfere  with  the  appetite  for  foods  which  are 
not  sweet,  and  not  being  wholly  absorbed,  undergo  fermen- 
tation, giving  rise  to  acid  conditions  of  the  stomach,  etc.^ 

168.  The  inorganic  constituents  of  food  are  water  and 
the  chemical  salts.  Some  of  the  salts  are  needed  in  a 
comparatively  large  amount  for  certain  parts  of  the  body, 
as  lime  for  the  bones ;  phosphorus  for  the  bones,  muscles, 
and  nervous  system ;  iron  for  the  blood ;  and  alkalies  for 
the  liver. 

169.  Of  all  substances,  a  regular  supply  of  water  is  the 
most  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life.  If  deprived  of 
it  for  eight  or  ten  hours,  far  greater  inconvenience,  pain, 

1  Cane  sugar  is  obtained  from  sugar  cane,  beet  root,  sugar  maple,  etc. 
Glucose  is  combined  with  cane  sugar  and  fruit  sugar,  in  peaches,  pineapples, 
and  strawberries  ;  and  with  fruit  sugar  in  honey,  grapes,  cherries,  etc.,  and  in 
raisins  and  other  dried  fruit,  and  is  frequently  found  in  the  animal  fluids. 
Milk  sugar  is  the  saccharine  ingredient  of  milk. 

2  Good  candy,  not  impaired  by  deleterious  coloring  matter,  or  other  substan- 
ces, and  eaten  in  moderation,  is  a  serviceable  food,  especially  when  the  diet  is 
deficient  in  carbonaceous  elements, 


114 


FOOD. 


DIETETICS. 


and  debility  is  suffered  than  upon  a  similar  deprivation  of 
solid  food.  With  water,  life  may  be  sustained  without  the 
aid  of  other  food  for  several  weeks;  but,  if  entirely  deprived 
of  it,  death  is  likely  to  result  in  a  few  days.  («.) 

170.  Wate7'  is  present  in  all  the  tissues^  solid  and  semi- 
solid, and  in  all  the  fluids,  and,  it  is  estimated,  constitutes 
about  70  per  cent  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  body.^  It 
gives  fluidity  to  the  blood  and  secretions,  enabling  them 
to  perform  their  functions  of  introducing  into  the  body, 
and  discharging  from  it,  substances  held  by  them  in 
solution.  The  elasticity  of  bones,  cartilages,  and  muscles, 
and  the  flexibility  of  tendons  and  other  tissues,  are  largely 
due  to  its  presence. 

The  quantity  introduced  into  the  body  of  a  healthy 
man  as  a  drink,  and  in  various  foods,  in  temperate  climates, 
is  on  an  average  about  four  and  a  half  pounds  per  day.^ 
It  is  found  in  every  kind  of  food,  whether  solid  or  fluid, 
and  the  amount    so    taken    is    not    usually    appreciated.^ 


Quantity  of  water,  according  to  Dalton,  in  1000  parts  of 


Saliva 995 

Perspiration  .     .     .  98G 

Gastric  juice  .     .     .  975 

Pancreatic  juice     .  900 


Muscles    ....  750 

Cartilage  ....  550 

Bones 130 

Teeth 100 


Bile 880 

Blood 795 

Brain 789 

Ligaments ....    768 

2  According  to  Dr.  Dalton,  "there  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  certain  quantity 
of  water  also  makes  its  appearance  within  the  body  by  the  liberation  of  its 
elements  from  various  organic  combinations." 

3  "  Number  of  pounds  of  water  in  100  pounds  of 


Sugar 5  lbs. 

Rice 13   " 

Indian  meal     .     .     .     .  *  .     .    14    " 
Peas,  wheat  flour,  barley  \ 

meal,  oatmeal,  butter  \      15   " 
fats,  dried  bacon    .      J 

Bread 37    " 

Fat  pork 39   " 

"  In  100  pints  of  New  milk 8(5  lbs. 

Skimmed  milk  and  butter  milk    .     .     88  lbs. 

Beer  and  porter 91  lbs." 

-^Health.    Edward  Smith,  M.D,    London 


Fat  beef 51  lbs. 

Fat  mutton 53  " 

Lean  mutton 72  " 

Egg,  ox  liver 74  " 

Potatoes,  eels 75  " 

Parsnips 82  "  • 

Turnips 91  " 


FOOD. — DIETETICS.  115 

After  performing  its  part  in  the  various  nutritive  pro- 
cesses carried  on  in  the  body,  about  20  per  cent  is  exhaled 
from  the  lungs,  30  per  cent  discharged  by  the  skin,  and 
50  per  cent  by  the  kidneys  and  intestines. 

171.  Next  to  water  the  most  important  inorganic  con- 
stituents of  the  body  and  food  are  sodium  chloride,  or 
common  salt,  calcium  phosphate,  iron,  phosphorus,  and  sul- 
phur. Salt  is  essential  to  the  life  of  animals,  and  is  found 
in  their  every  tissue,  with  the  exception  of  the  enamel  of 
the  teeth.  It  is  also  a  constituent  of  almost  all  food,  and 
exists  in  small  quantities  in  almost  every  spring,  soil,  and 
plant.  The  quantity  taken  with  food  as  furnished  by 
nature  is  generally  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  body, 
and  hence  its  use  as  a  condiment.  It  assists  in  regulat- 
ing the  processes  of  endosmosis  and  exosmosis,  and  excites 
the  digestive  secretions,  thus  stimulating  the  appetite.  Its 
value  is  indicated  by  the  natural  craving  of  the  system  for 
it,  and  by  the  results  of  experiments  upon  the  lower 
animals.  Without  it,  digestion  would  be  imperfect  and 
health  could  not  be  long  maintained.  We  are  told  that 
the  ancient  laws  of  Holland  "  ordained  men  to  be  kept  on 
bread  alone,  unmixed  with  salt,  as  the  severest  punishment 
that  could  be  inflicted  upon  them  in  their  moist  climate." 
Animals  will  go  long  distances  in  search  of  salt,  and  if 
deprived  of  it,  their  hides  become  rough  and  tangled,  their 
spirits  dull,  and  they  finally  lose  health  and  strength.  In 
countries  where  salt  is  scarce,  it  is  sold  at  fabulous 
prices,   (a.) 

1 72.  Lime  occurs  principally  as  calcium  phosphate,  and 
calcium  carbonate,  the  first  being  most  abundant.  Lime  is 
an  ingredient  of  every  tissue  and  fluid  of  the  body,  but  is 
especially  necessary  in  the  bones  and  teeth,  where  it  affords 
strength  and  consistency. 


116  FOOD. — DIETETICS. 

We  have  already  seen  that  a  deficiency  of  lime  salts 
renders  the  bones  soft,  so  that  they  easily  bend ;  hence,  dur- 
ing early  life,  when  the  tissues  are  developing,  lime  salts 
should  be  supplied  in  comparatively  large  quantities.  Of 
all  articles  of  food,  meat,  milk,  and  vegetable  grains  con- 
tain lime  in  the  largest  amount. 

Of  iron  about  one-third  of  an  ounce  exists  in  the  body 
in  connection  with  the  coloring  matter  of  the  blood,  of 
which  fluid  it  forms  about  one-thousandth  part.  It  is  a 
constituent  of  milk  and  eggs,  and  is  sometimes  found  in 
water.  Its  importance  to  health  becomes  appreciated, 
when,  as  a  medicine,  it  restores  color  to  the  skin  and 
enriches  the  blood. 

Phosphorus  and  sulphur^  in  the  form  of  phosphates  and 
sulphates,  are  introduced  into  the  body  with  food,  and 
enter  into  the  composition  of  muscles  and  other  tissues.^ 

173.  The  vegetable  acids,  malic,  citric,  tartaric,  etc.,  are 
found  in  fruits  and  vegetables,  combined  with  the  bases, 
lime,  soda,  and  potassa,  forming  salts  known  as  malates, 
citrates,  etc.  These  salts  are  indispensable  in  food,  for  in 
the  body  they  are  converted  into  carbonates,  and  assist  in 
furnishing  alkalies  to  the  blood  and  other  fluids. 

1 74.  The  quantity  of  food  needed  varies  greatly,  depend- 
ing upon  age,  health,  occupation,  digestive  powers,  and 
other  peculiarities,  also  upon  the  climate  and  season,  the 
amount  of  clothing  worn,   upon  the  kind  of  food  used, 

1  "The  element  phosphorus  seems  no  less  Important  from  a  biological 
point  of  view  than  carbon  or  nitrogen.  It  is  as  absolutely  essential  for  the 
growth  of  a  lowly  being  like  penicillium  as  for  man  himself.  We  find  it  peculi- 
arly associated  with  the  proteids,  apparently  in  the  form  of  phosphates ;  but 
we  cannot  explain  its  role.  The  element  sulphur,  again,  is  only  second  to 
phosphorus,  and  we  find  it  as  a  constituent  of  nearly  all  proteids;  but  we 
cannot  tell  what  exactly  would  happen  to  the  economy  if  all  the  sulphur  of  the 
food  were  withdrawn." —  Text  Book  of  Physiology.    Foster. 


FOOD. 


DIETETICS.  117 


and  other  circumstances.  In  infancy,  a  period  of  rapid 
growth  and  development,  a  proportionately  larger  amount 
of  food  is  needed  than  at  any  other  period  of  life.^ 

A  healthy,  growing  cliild,  with  the  muscular  strength 
and  nervous  energy  of  youth,  will  often  eat,  if  he  does  not 
require,  as  much  food  as  the  average  man ;  ^  while  old, 
feeble,  and  inactive  persons  require  but  very  little  food. 

Lewis  Conaro,  a  Venetian,  leading  a  quiet  life,  subsisted 
for  48  years  on  12  ounces  per  day  of  vegetable  matter, 
and  14  ounces  of  light  wine. 

During  the  late  siege  of  Paris,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  inactive,  a  diet  which  barely  supported  life  consisted 
of  10  ounces  of  bread  and  1  ounce  of  meat  daily. 

1 75.  Active  mental  or  physical  work  renders  an  abun- 
dance of  substantial  food  necessary. 

Proper  work  cannot  be  accomplished  on  an  insufficient 
or  improper  diet.  It  happens  sometimes  that  in  prisons, 
and  even  charitable  institutions,  the  daily  ration  is  dimin- 
ished below  the  physiological  standard  for  the  sake  of 
economy.  If  there  is  but  little  activity  of  mind  or  body, 
some  diminution  may  not  be  attended  with  actual  disease, 
but  if  active,  healthy  children  are  scantily  fed,  or  convicts 
in  prison  are  compelled  to  do  hard  work  on  a  light  labor 
diet,  sickness,  great  feebleness,  and  even  death  result. 

1  During  the  first  year  of  life  a  child  should  grow  from  six  to  eight  inches, 
and  should  weigh  at  the  end  of  the  year  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  at  hirth. 
In  the  second  year  the  growth  should  he  only  about  half  as  much  as  in  the 
first.  In  the  third  year  only  about  a  third  as  much.  After  the  third  year  the 
weight  and  growth  are  more  uniform.  To  meet  these  demands  it  is  generally 
necessary  to  feed  infants  every  two,  three,  or  four  hours. 

-  "  In  case  of  in-door  operatives,  the  dietaries  of  women  should  be  about 
one-tenth  less  than  those  of  men.  A  child  at  ten  years  of  age  will  require  half 
as  much  nutriment  as  a  woman,  and  at  fourteen  quite  as  much  as  a  woman. 
Young  men  who  have  not  reached  their  full  growth,  but  who  are  doing  the 
same  amount  of  work  as  adult  men,  require  more  food  than  the  latter."-— 
Handbook  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitary  Science.    "VViiiSON. 


118  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

Size  alone  does  not  determine  the  amount  of  food 
required.  In  fact,  large  and  fat  people  often  thrive  on  a 
scant  diet,  especially  if  there  be  a  great  indisj)osition  to 
muscular  exertion,  while  thin  and  diminutive  persons, 
particularly  hard  workers,  may  eat  and  digest  a  very  large 
amount.  As  people  become  better  supplied  with  this 
world's  goods,  the  tendency  is  to  eat  too  much.  A  loss  of 
wealth  sometimes  restores  health,  by  a  diminution  in  the 
quantity  and  a  change  in  the  quality  of  the  food  con- 
sumed. Persons  in  moderate  circumstances  often  learn 
how  to  thrive  on  what  is  considered  by  many  an  insuffi- 
cient amount  of  food.  The  body  exposed  to  a  cool,  brac- 
ing atmosphere,  or  to  extreme  cold,  demands  an  increased 
supply  of  food.^  According  to  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Arctic  ex- 
plorer, the  daily  ration  of  the  Esquimaux  is  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  pounds  of  meat,  about  one-third  of  which  is  fat. 

176.  The  digestihility  of  food  must  to  a  large  extent 
regulate  the  quantity  to  be  eaten,  especially  of  certain 
kinds,  such  as  beans,  peas,  cheese,  and  rice.  A  healthy 
appetite^  if  the  individual  is  able  to  supply  himself  with 
the  food  he  desires,  is  ordinarily  nature's  regulator  as  to 
quantity,  and  also  quality.  Appetite  normally  asserts 
itself  at  regular  intervals,  or  what  we  call  meal-times, 
and  may  then  be  appeased  by  a  moderate  quantity  of 
food.  But  an  undue  excitation  of  the  muscles  and  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  stomach,  by  irregular  eating,  will 
produce  in  time  the  habit  of  an  irregular  secretion  of  the 
gastric  juice,  a  consequent  variable  appetite,  or  a  frequent 
and  gluttonous  desire  for  unnecessary  food.  The  exces- 
sive amount  of  food  thus  eaten  disorders  the  processes  of 

1  The  ravenous  appetite  noticed  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  cold  climates 
may  be  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  their  food  supply  is  very  irregular,  so 
that  whQp  supplied  with  food  they  eat  to  excess. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  119 

secretion,  assimilation,  and  excretion,  and  induces  disease.^ 
As  Dr.  Beale  remarks,  "The  generally  received  theory 
propounded  by  some  popular  philosophers,  that  the  more 
you  consume  in  the  way  of  food  the  more  work  will  your 
machinery  perform,  is  a  principle  which  may  apply  to 
machines,  but  not  to  man." 

177.  The  appetite  may  be  aroused  by  attention  to  hy- 
gienic measures,  such  as  proper  mental  and  physical  exer- 
cise, bathing,  rest,  and  the  proper  selection,  cooking,  and 
presentation  of  food ;  also,  by  vegetable  bitters,  by  condi- 
ments, etc.  It  is  diminished,  on  the  other  hand,  by  inat- 
tention to  hygiene,  by  worry,  by  opium  and  other  drugs, 
and  by  an  abuse  of  alcoholic  stimulants. 

178.  The  knowledge  of  the  kind  and  daily  amount  of 
food  required  by  the  average  individual,  among  an  aggre- 
gation of  persons  w^hose  social  and  hygienic  surroundings 
are  about  the  same,  —  as  in  an  army,  on  shipboard,  or  in 
an  institution, — affords  a  criterion  upon  which  to  calculate 
the  kind  and  amount  needed  by  a  number  of  persons. 
From  such  estimates  Dietaries  or  Diet  Tables  are  con- 
structed. 

The  requisite  daily  amount  of  food  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  health  of  "a  person  of  average  stature  under 
exposure  to  a  temperate  climate  and  a  moderate  amount 

1  "A  voracious  appetite  is  a  condition  which  I  suppose  maybe  due  to  a 
very  irritable  state  of  the  nerves  of  the  stomach.  .  .  .  Tlie  voracious  appetite, 
as  we  see  it  existing  in  cliildren  and  young  people,  usually  comes  from  undue 
encouragement.  The  greater  the  desire  for  food  the  more  food  the  individual 
eats,  and  so  he  goes  on,  until  he  succeeds  in  consuming  several  times  as  much 
food  as  his  system  requires.  Thus  is  thrown  upon  important  organs  the  task 
of  eliminating  a  quantity  of  useless  material  which  ought  not  to  have  been 
taken.  ...  A  child  perhaps  is  rather  thin,  and  therefore  encouraged  to  stuff, 
and  by  degrees  the  habit  of  taking  enormous  quantities  of  food  is  acquired, 
with  the  not  uncommon  result  to  the  patient  of  getting  thinner,  instead  of 
gaining  in  weight."  —  Slight  Ailments.    Lionel  S.  Beale,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 


120  FOOD. D  FETETICS. 

of  muscular  work "  is  23  ounces  of  dry,  solid  matter,^ 
or  46  ounces  of  solid  food  as  ordinarily  consumed ;  50 
to  80  ounces  of  water,  in  addition  to  that  in  the  solid 
food,  is  also  necessary.  The  solid  food  thus  consumed 
contains  about  300  grains  of  nitrogen,  and  4,800  grains  of 
carbon,  (a.)  A  diet,  in  which  the  quantity  of  food  and 
the  relative  proportions  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  are  much 
below  the  above  estimates,  induces  the  symptoms  of  star- 
vation with  greater  or  less  rapidity .^  (^.) 

179.  In  the  selection  and  preparation  of  food  there  are 
certain  points  to  be  observed :  the  diet  should  consist  of 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  food,  in  such  proportion 
and  condition  as  will  afford  nutrition,  avoid  monotony, 
and  tempt  the  appetite. 

Unquestionably  a  diversified  diet  best  fulfils  the  above 
conditions.  Wheat  bread,  valuable  as  it  is,  contains  about 
25  per  cent  of  carbon,  and  only  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 
In  order  therefore  to  obtain  the  required  amount  of  nitro- 
gen, if  bread  alone  is  eaten,  it  will  be  necessary  to  eat 

1  "  Alimentary  substances  in  a  dry  state  required  daily:  — 
Dry  food  in  ounces  avoirdujiois. 

Albuminous  matter 4.587 

Fatty  matter 2.964 

Carbo-hydrates 14.250 

Salts 1.058 


—  Quain's  Diet,  of  Med. 

2  "The  first  and  most  important  principle  established  by  Chossat  is  that 
absolute  deprivation  of  food,  and  deficiency  of  food,  are  physiologically  iden- 
tical in  their  action  on  animal  life.  One  acts  quicker  than  the  other,  but  the 
difference  is  merely  one  of  duration  and  degree.  Both  are  equally  fatal  in  the 
end ;  and  the  end  in  both  is  regulated  by  the  same  law.  Death  arrives  wheil 
the  body  has  lost  six-tenths  of  its  weight,  whether  that  happens  after  days,  or 
months,  or  years."  —  Manual  of  Diet.    Chambers. 

In  an  overcrowded  military  prison,  a  diet  of  one-third  of  a  pound  of  bacon 
and  one  and  three-fourths  pounds  of  unbolted  meal  daily,  caused  much  sick- 
ness and  very  many  deaths. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  121 

about  four  pounds  a  day ;  in  doing  which,  twice  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  carbon  will  be  consumed.  On  the  other 
liand,  to  obtain  sufficient  carbon  from  an  exclusive  meat 
diet,  a  man  must  eat  about  six  pounds  of  meat  a  day, 
and  he  would  be  taking  six  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  is 
necessary. 

180.  The  system  craves  a  varied  diet,  and  the  living 
for  a  lenc^th  of  time  on  even  an  abundance  of  food,  if  it 
be  unvaried  from  day  to  day,  will  generally  result  in  loss 
of  appetite  and  in  disease.  The  condition  known  as 
scurvy,  —  in  which  the  blood  becomes  thin,  and  settles  in 
spots  under  the  skin,  and  the  gums  are  spongy  and  bleed 
readily,  and  the  individual  is  debilitated,  —  was  formerly 
not  uncommon  on  long  sea-voyages,  especially  in  the  Arc- 
tic regions,  where  the  diet  consisted  largely  of  bread,  tea, 
and  salt  meat.  At  the  present  time  most  vessels  going  on 
such  voyages  are  supplied  with  lemons,  lime  juice,  canned 
meats,  fruits,  and  vegetables.^  (a.)  A  similar  condition  is 
also  seen  on  land  in  persons  who  are  restricted  to  a  diet  in 
which  fresh  vegetables  and  fruit  are  lacking,  or  whose  food 
consists  mainly  of  potatoes  or  bread  and  tea,  with  little  or 
no  butter,  meat,  or  milk. 

181.  Soldiers  in  active  service,  with  restricted  and  un- 
varying rations,  often  have  an  intense  craving  for  fresh 
vegetables,  such  as  onions  and  raw  potatoes,  which  are 
excellent  anti-scorbutics. 

When  a  variety  of  articles  cannot  be  obtained,  varied 
methods  of  preparing  and  cooking  the  limited  supply 
should  be  resorted  to.  "  Good  cookery  means  economy ; 
bad  cooke*y  means  waste." 

1  Lime  juice,  by  law,  is  required  to  be  carried  on  board  Englisli  ships,  and 
served  out  to  the  sailors;  hence,  English  ships  are  called  by  American  sailors 
"  lime  juicers." 


122  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

182.  On  the  other  liand,  however,  there  may  be  such  a 
thing  as  too  great  a  variety^  and  this  also  will  destroy  the 
appetite.  People  living  in  large  hotels,  travellers  fre- 
quently eating  in  bountifully  supplied  cars  and  restau- 
rants, especially  if  little  exercise  is  taken,  often  suffer 
from  dyspepsia  and  disturbed  action  of  the  liver  and  other 
digestive  organs.  High  livers  are  apt  to  resort  to  alcoholic 
stimulants  and  to  condiments  to  excite  their  jaded  appe- 
tites. In  like  manner,  the  under-fed  and  those  living  on  a 
very  small  variety  of  food  often  fancy  they  need  the 
assistance  of  the  cup.  In  the  former  case  the  practice  of 
abstemiousness,  and  in  the  latter  a  more  bountiful  and 
varied  diet,  is  really  what  is  required. ^ 

183.  Articles  of  food  are  often  robbed  of  their  value, 
and  are  sometimes  positively  harmful,  and  even  poisonous, 
in  consequence  of  adulteration^  or  of  being  immature,  or 
stale,  or  too  ripe.  Milk  diluted  with  water,  or  skimmed 
of  a  large  part  of  its  cream,  or  that  taken  from  unhealthy 
cows,  is  a  common  evil.  "Measly  meat,"  that  is,  meat 
containing  animalcula,  such  as  trichinae,  is  occasionally 
the  cause  of  sickness  and  death. 

184.  Vegetables,  and  meat  of  coarse  texture,  which 
are  purchased  for  economical  reasons,  are  often  tough  and 
indigestible.  Garden  produce,  especially  corn,  cucumbers, 
celery,   and   lettuce,   when    fresh    and   fully   formed,    are 

1  "Coffee  houses,"  "holly  tree  inns,"  "diet  dispensaries,"  if  properly 
conducted,  can  do  much  to  avert  a  taste  for  liquor  by  furnishing  suitable 
food. 

2  Adulteration  is  very  common,  and  laws  to  control  it  are  evaded.  Frauds 
in  food  consist,  first,  in  the  addition  of  deleterious  substances,  such  as  salt  of 
copper  to  pickles,  and  red  lead  to  cayenne  pepper.  Second,  in  the  sale  of 
fraudulent  materials,  such  as  cotton-seed  oil  for  salad  oil,  of  flour  and  a  little 
mustard  with  turmeric  for  pure  mustard,  and  of  oleomargarine  for  butter. 
Third,  the  sale  of  substances  not  so  fresh  and  in  as  good  a  condition  as  they 
^re  represented  to  be  by  the  seller. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS.  123 

desirable  additions  to  the  table,  but  may  become  indigest- 
ible, and  a  source  of  disease  if  allowed  to  become  dry  and 
stale.  («.)  On  the  other  hand,  immature  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, such  as  potatoes,  lack  the  fully  formed  juices  and 
salts,  which  are  so  indispensable  to  make  them  serviceable 
as  food.  In  over-ripe  fruit  and  yegetables  the  juices  and 
salts  have  decomposed,  giving  rise  to  new  combinations 
which  are  hurtful. 

185.  Housekeepers  are  often  hindered,  in  supplying  the 
table  with  much  of  what  the  various  seasons  afford,  by  the 
cost  of  the  articles  of  food.  Yet  a  careful  examination  of 
this  question  will  show  that  the  cost  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  city,  and  that  investigation  will 
soon  enable  one  to  furnish  a  variety  of  good  substantial 
food  at  much  less  cost  than  is  generally  thought  possible. 
The  instructions  afforded  by  some  of  the  cooking  schools 
sliould  be  directed  even  more  than  it  is  to  this  object.  («.) 

186.  Food  of  medium  quality  may  be  made  very  ser- 
viceable by  proper  preparation  and  cooking.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  very  best  food  may  be  rendered  useless,  and  also 
unwholesome,  and  even  dangerous,  by  improper  prepar- 
atory treatment,  (a.)  For  example,  the  coarser  and 
tougher  portions  of  meat,  and  also  vegetables  of  coarse 
fibre,  will  be  rendered  quite  tender  by  prolonged  boiling. 
An  important  rule  in  roasting,  boiling,  or  broiling  meat,  is 
to  produce  at  the  start  a  rapid  coagulation  of  the  albumen 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  meat,  so  as  to  form  a  crust  that 
may  prevent  the  juices  from  escaping.  This  is  done  by 
subjecting  the  meat  at  the  first  to  a  great  heat,  after  which 
the  cooking  should  proceed  more  slowly.^    In  like  manner, 

1  On  the  other  hand,  the  process  of  soup-making  is  facilitated  if  the  meat  is 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  put  into  cold  water,  and  the  temperature  slowly 
raised. 


124  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

the  boiling  of  potatoes,  with  at  least  the  larger  part  of  their 
skins  on,  prevents  the  escape  of  much  that  is  nutritious. 

187.  Frying^  as  ordinarily  conducted,  is  of  all  methods 
of  cooking  the  most  objectionable.  The  slowly  heated 
fat  evolves  fatty  acids  which  are  more  or  less  injurious, 
and,  by  penetrating  into  the  particles  of  the  frying  food, 
envelops  them  in  grease.  As  fats  are  not  digestible  in 
the  stomach,  it  follows  that  food  so  fried  cannot  be  prop- 
erly dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice,  but  becomes  an  irritant. 
To  fry  properly^  the  fat  should  be  boiling  hot  before  the 
food  is  put  into  it,  that  an  outer  crust  may  be  formed, 
Avhich  will  prevent  the  fats  from  penetrating  to  the  interior. 
And  the  fat  should  boil  during  the  entire  process  of 
frying.i 

Food  preserved  in  cans  made  of  so-called  tin,  but 
which  is  in  fact  a  compound  of  tin  and  lead,  or  in  cans 
badly  soldered  with  lead,  is  liable  to  become  poisonous, 
especially  if  such  food  contain  an  acid,  as  is  the  case  with 
tomatoes.2 

Food  cooked  or  left  standing  in  brass  or  copper  vessels 
which  are  not  clean  is  dangerous  to  life.  Ice  boxes,  store- 
rooms, or  cellars,  which  are  not  clean  or  are  imperfectly 
connected  with  drains,  are  constant  sources  of  poison  to 
milk,  water, -fats,  and  other  foods  which  readily  absorb 
poisons  from  the  atmosphere. 


1  "  Scientific  frying  is  really  one  of  the  very  best  modes  of  cooking,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  blundering  starve-farthing  way  is  the  v^ery  worst."  — 
Caterer. 

2  Much  of  the  detriment  arising  from  eating  canned  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
meat,  would  be  obviated  if  these  goods  were  preserved  in  glass  jars.  Canned 
fish,  especially,  should  be  warmed  through  before  being  eaten,  by  jilacing  the 
opened  can  in  a  basin  of  hot  water.    Failure  to  do  this  may  cause  sickness. 


FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 


125 


"No  wonder  the  meat  won't  keep,  the  beer  turns  sour,  and  the  milk  disagrees. 
Open  grates  in  cellars  are  often  untrapped,  and,  when  trapped,  the  traps  are 
usually  ineffective  from  want  of  water,  or  from  being  broken ;  and  even  if 
sealed  by  water,  they  are  still  an  inefficient  barrier  to  sewer  gases,  which  can 
pass  by  absorption  through  water."  —  Dangers  to  Health.    Teale. 


QUESTIONS. 


10. 

11. 
12. 


What  is  food  in  a  physiological  sense  ? 

What  are  positive  and  what  negative  foods  ? 

What  are  the  sources  of  food,  and  of  what  use  are  the  coarser 
ingredients  ? 

How  is  food  classified  as  to  its  origin,  and  how  many  chemical 
elements  must  be  supplied  by  it  ? 

How  are  the  organic  constituents  divided  ? 

What  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  nitrogenous  constitu- 
ents ? 

From  what  sources  are  they  derived  in  the  greatest  abundance  ? 

What  are  the  principal  forms  in  which  they  exist  in  animal  and 
vegetable  foods  respectively  ? 

What  peculiar  property  has  fibrin? 

What  are  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents,  and  what  is  their 
value  ? 

From  whence  is  fat  chiefly  obtained  ? 

What  is  to  be  said  of  its  digestibility,  value,  and  varied  use  ? 


126  FOOD.  —  DIETETICS. 

13.  Where  is  starch  found,  and  in  what  different  forms? 

14.  When  is  starch  most  digestible,  and  why  ? 

15.  When  is  fruit  most  digestible,  and  why? 

16.  Why  should  an  over-abundance  of  starchy  foods  be  avoided? 

17.  What  substances  are  allied  to  starch,  and  what  is  their  nutritive 

value  ? 

18.  What  are  the  distinguishing  properties  of  sugar  ? 

19.  What  principal  varieties  of  sugar  are  there  ?    What  is  their  value  ? 

20.  Name  the  principal  inorganic  constituents  of  food. 

21.  To  what  extent  is  water  found  in  the  body? 

22.  How  is  it  received  into  the  body,  and  what  proi3ortion  is  excreted 

by  the  lungs  and  skin  ? 

23.  Of  what  use  is  salt  in  food? 

24.  What  purpose  does  lime  serve  in  the  body,  and  how  is  it  obtained '; 

25.  State  the  quantity  of  iron  in  the  body.      How  mainly  received, 

and  its  utility. 

26.  What  other  substances  are  found  in  the  blood  and  tissues  ? 

27.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  vegetable  acids? 

28.  What  does  the  necessary  quantity  of  food  depend  upon  ? 

29.  How  is  this  modified  by  age?    By  size?    By  climate  and  tem- 

perature, by  the  nature  of  the  food  and  the  appetite  ? 

30.  What  are  the  effects  of  too  low  a  diet,  and  of  too  much  food  ? 

31.  What  should  guide  us  in  forming  a  dietary? 

32.  What  becomes  especially  important  where  there  is  no  variety  of  diet  ? 

33.  What,  however,  may  be  the  consequence  of  a  too  varied  diet? 

34.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  resort  to  stimulants  alike  by  the  over 

and  the  under  fed? 

35.  What  as  to  the  condition  of  foods  as  obtained  in  our  markets  ? 

36.  What  is  the  proper  mode  of  frying,  and  why?  and  why  cannot 

improperly  fried  food  be  digested  ? 

37.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  vessels  in  which  food  is  kept? 


ANALYSIS. 


127 


ANALYSIS   OF  CHAPTER   NINE. 


FOOD. 


-  Varieties  .  .  .  , 


T.  Constituents  or  Component  Principles. 

How  essential? 

Of  animal  — 

f  Nitrogenous ^  Albumen. 

Fibrin. 
Casein,  etc. 
Of  vegetable  — 
Organic .  .  .  .  \  Albumen. 

Gluten. 
I     Casein,  etc. 
r  How  essential  ? 
I  Non-nitrogenous  .  .  J  r  Fats  and  oils. 

L  Varieties  •  •  -  \  Starches. 

[  Sugars,  etc. 
r  Water. 

T  .  Salts.  —  Chlorides,  phosphates,  etc. ;  lime,  etc. 

Inorganic  .  .  I  ^^^^^^^^^^,^  ^^      ^ 

1  Iron. 


11.  Quantity. 


DIETETICS. 


f  Constituents. 

1.  Selection  of  food ^  -,^      i   •^' 

I  treshness. 


2.  Preparation  of  food 


jNlaturity,  cost,  etc. 
.    Cooking,  etc. 


CHAPTER    X. 

FOODS. -ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

188.  The  various  articles  of  food  may  be  classified  as 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral.  Animal  foods  comprise 
the  flesh  of  animals,  their  blood,  secretions  (milk,  eggs, 
etc.),  and  also  their  various  organs,  which,  though  not 
containing  so  much  nitrogen  as  flesh,  are  often  more  ser- 
viceable if  eaten  with  proper  vegetable  food.^ 

Flesh  or  7neat  consists  of  muscular,  connective,  and  ad- 
ipose tissues,  and  contains  albuminoids,  water,  fat,  and 
salts.  On  account  of  its  abundant  supply  of  nitrogenous 
ingredients,  its  stimulating  properties  and  pleasant  taste, 
meat  is  usually  ranked  as  a  very  nutritious ^  food;  and 
is  therefore  frequently  eaten  to  excess,  especially  by  little 

1  The  organs  most  commonly  used  as  food  are  the  heart,  the  liver, 
the  pancreas  or  "sweet  bread,"  the  thymus  gland,  and  the  stomach  or 
"tripe."  Pigs'  feet  and  ox  tails  are  highly  esteemed  by  many.  The  heart  — 
though  composed  almost  entirely  of  muscle  —  is  not  always  easily  digested, 
while  tripe  is  in  general  readily  digested.  The  latter  contains  but  about  13 
per  cent  of  albuminoids  and  16  per  cent  of  fat.  In  fact,  most  of  the  internal 
organs  do  not  contain  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  should  be  eaten,  there- 
fore, with  grain  food  or  vegetables  comparatively  rich  in  nitrogen.  Bones, 
which  are  thrown  away  by  many  housekeepers  because  they  are  of  "no  use," 
if  well  broken  up,  and  submitted  to  prolonged  boiling,  will  yield  fat  and  gela- 
tine Avhich  may  form  the  basis  or  "stock"  for  nutritious  soups,  (a.)  When 
meat  is  roasted,  the  drippings  contain  much  nutriment,  and,  if  boiled,  or  sub- 
mitted to  prolonged  simmering,  as  in  the  making  of  soup,  much  of  the  juice  of 
the  meat  goes  into  the  broth,  leaving  the  meat  quite  hard.  These  drippings 
and  this  broth  should  be  eaten  with  vegetables,  rice,  barley,  etc. 

2  The  terms  "  nutritious"  and  "  wholesome  "  are  too  commonly  applied  by 
individuals  to  articles  of  food  which  suit  their  oion  tastes  and  digestion. 

.  "  To  assert  a  thing  to  be  wholesome  without  a  knowledge  of  the  condition 
of  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended,  is  like  a  sailor  pronouncing  the  wind  to 
be  fair  without  knowing  to  what  port  the  vessel  is  bound."  —  Van  Swieten. 


FOODS, — ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS.  129 

children,  old  people,  the  feeble,  and  the  inactive,  (a.)  It 
requires  to  be  properly  prepared  and  thoroughly  chewed 
before  it  can  be  safely  swallowed  or  readily  digested.    (6.) 

189.  The  various  kinds  of  meat  differ  as  to  their  digest- 
ibility and  nutritive  value.  Beef,  mutton,  lamb,  poultry, 
the  flesh  of  many  fishes,  also  venison  and  other  "game," 
are  generally  more  easily  digested  than  pork,  veal,  and 
salted  or  pickled  meats.^  Different  parts  of  the  same  animal 
vary  as  to  flavor  and  tenderness ;  but  the  cheaper  portions, 
though  ordinarily  tough  and  indigestible,  may,  by  proper 
cooking  and  seasoning,  be  rendered  nutritious  and  palatable. 

The  age  of  animals,  the  kind  of  feeding,  and  the  care 
observed  in  their  housing  and  transportation,  influence 
the  flavor  and  nutritiousness  of  the  meat  obtained  from 
them.  As  a  rule,  the  flesh  of  young  animals  is  more  ten- 
der than  that  of  old  ones ;  but  meat,  especially  veal,  from 
very  young  animals  is  unwholesome. 

190.  Pork,  owing  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  its  fat, 
and  the  compactness  of  its  lean  meat,  is  not  readily  per- 
meated by  the  digestive  secretions  during  digestion ;  but 
if  obtained  from  animals  properly  fed  and  cared  for,  it  is 
serviceable.  Salted  food,  whether  meat  or  fish,  in  small 
quantity,  will  stimulate  the  appetite,  and  is  useful  as  an 
occasional  article  of  diet.  Of  all  varieties  of  meat,  beef 
is  most  often  used,  and  is  least  liable  to  pall  upon  the 
appetite,   (a.) 

191.  As  to  poultry  and  game.,  tenderness  and  flavor 
are  the  most  desirable  characteristics.     Old  birds,  and  old 

1  Hippophagy,  or  the  eating  of  horse  flesh,  is  advocated  hy  good  authori- 
ties, especially  when  heef  is  hard  to  ohtain.  "  Such  food  is  a  valuable  resource 
in  France,  where  many  of  the  people  scarcely  ever  touch  meat,  in  consequence 
of  the  enormous  disproportion  between  the  production  of  cattle  and  the  popu- 
lation of  the  country." 


130  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

game  animals,  are  generally  tough  and  indigestible,  and 
their  fat  is  often  rank.^ 

192.  Fish  should  be  eaten  oftener  than  it  is,  as  a  sub- 
stantial food,  and  not  merely  as  a  relish,  or  simply  "  for  a 
change."  The  constituents  of  the  meat  of  different  kinds 
of  fish  vary,  however,  considerably.  Salmon  and  shad 
contain  much  fat  and  nitrogenous  matter ;  flounders  and 
cod-fish  a  less  proportion.  The  following  fish,  in  the 
order  named,  contain  the  largest  amount  of  albuminoids ; 
viz.:  red  snapper,  white  fish,  brook  trout,  salmon,  blue  fish, 
shad,  eels,  mackerel,  halibut,  haddock,  lake  trout,  and 
striped  bass,  and  after  these  the  cod  and  the  flounder,  {a.) 

193.  All  fish  are  best  when  "  in  season,"  but  should  be 
selected  with  care.  The  freshness  of  a  fish  is  determined 
by  the  fulness  and  brightness  of  the  eyeballs,  and  the 
vivid  color  of  the  gills.  The  sense  of  smell  cannot  always 
be  relied  on  in  selecting  fish,  since  packing  in  ice  to  a 
large  extent  prevents  the  escape  of  odor.^ 

Shell  fish,  and  the  flesh  from  the  hind  legs  of  frogs, 
eaten  in  season,  are  valuable  edibles ;  though  some  of 
these  foods  at  times  prove  more  or  less  indigestible,  and 
excite  reddening  and  an  almost  unbearable  itching  of  the 
skin,  known  as  "hives"  or  " nettlerash."  (a.) 

1  Experienced  poulterers  and  butchers  claim  that  every  variety  of  fowl  and 
game  has  its  particular  season,  and  at  such  times  the  flesh  will  be  found  tender 
and  palatable,  even  in  old  birds,  just  as  fruit  eaten  *'  in  season  "  is  far  prefer- 
able to  that  which  is  forced  for  an  early  market. 

2  "  I  ought,  perhaps,  to  refer  briefly  to  the  very  widespread  but  unfounded 
notion  that  fish  is  particularly  valuable  for  brain  food,  because  of  its  large 
contents  of  phosphorus;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  there  is  no  evidence  as  yet 
(though  we  hope  to  have  more  data  before  long)  to  prove  that  the  flesh  of  fish 
is  especially  richer  in  phosphorus  than  other  meats;  and  even  if  it  were  so, 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  would  be  on  that  account  more  valuable  for  brain 
food .  The  questions  of  the  nourishment  of  the  brain  and  the  sources  of  intel- 
lectual energy  are  too  abstruse  for  speedy  solution  in  the  present  condition  of 
our  knowledge."  —  Extract  from  Paper  read  before  the  American  Fish  CiiUur- 
ists'  Association  by  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater  of  Wesleyan  University,  1880. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS.  131 

194.  Meat  partially  decomposed  is  preferred  by  some ; 
and,  though  the  stomach  may  by  habit  become  accustomed 
to  such  food,  yet,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  it  either  causes 
indigestion  and  severe  sickness,  or  deteriorates  the  system 
so  that  it  easily  succumbs  to  contagious  and  infectious  dis- 
eases. («.)  It  sometimes  happens,  notwithstanding  the 
vigilance  of  health  authorities,  that  unwholesome  meat  is 
sold  in  the  shops.  Therefore  it  is  important  that  buyers 
should  know  what  constitutes  good  meat.  (5.) 

195.  Again,  the  value  of  meat  as  a  food  is  too  fre- 
quently diminished  by  the  condition  in  which  it  is  eaten. 
Overdone  meat  is  more  or  less  insipid  and  indigestible  in 
proportion  to  the  prolonged  action  of  heat.  Meat  which 
is  eaten  just  warmed  through,  or  in  a  raw  state,  may  prove 
dangerous  to  health,  from  the  trichinae  or  other  animal- 
cula  it  is  liable  to  contain.  To  destroy  these  parasites,  a 
heat  nearly  equal  to  that  of  boiling  water  (212°)  is  be- 
lieved by  good  authorities  to  be  necessary.^  In  fact,  meat 
should  be  cooked  just  enough  to  coagulate  its  albumen  and 
blood,  develop  its  flavor,  and  render  it  tender  and  agree- 
able to  the  sight. 

196.  Milk  is  justly  considered  the  "  model  food  "  ;  com- 
bining, as  it  does,  all  necessary  food  elements  in  the  form 
most  digestible  for  the  majority  of  persons.  It  sustains 
the  life  of  infants  at  a  time  when  the  digestive  organs  are 
most  sensitive.  It  should  be  the  principal  food  of  children, 
and  is  capable  of  sustaining  the  life  of  adults.  Contrary 
to  a  popular  belief,  milk  is  of  decided  value  in  fevers  and 
many  other  ailments.  Persons  with  whom  milk  does  not 
agree,  or  whom  it  is  said  to  make  "  bilious,"  will  often  be 

1  The  cases  of  **  parasite  poisoning  "  occur  in  persons  who  have  eaten  raw 
or  underdone  meat,  as  in  sausages,  pork  or  veal  pies,  from  the  inner  parts  of 
a  roast,  etc. 


132  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS. 

able  to  digest  it  if  it  is  taken  in  small  quantities  warm 
and  fresh  from  the  animal,  or  with  the  addition  of  one- 
fifth  or  one-sixth  lime  water,  or  one-half  seltzer  water.^ 
Necessary  as  good  milk  is,  it  is  a  common  experience  to 
receive  it  deprived  of  its  cream,  diluted  with  water,  or 
otherwise  adulterated  by  dishonest  dealers.^  It  is  capable 
of  absorbing  noxious  odors  and  emanations,  and  may  con- 
vey the  infection  of  scarlet  and  typhoid  fevers  from  in- 
fected milk  rooms.  So  susceptible  is  even  the  very  best 
milk  to  change,  that  a  thunder  storm,  or  exposure  to  heat, 
or  the  contact  with  the  smallest  particle  of  sour  milk,  will 
render  it  unfit  for  use.  Great  care,  therefore,  is  to  be 
observed  in  keeping  milk.  The  store  rooms,  as  well  as  the 
vessels  containing  it,  should  be  clean  and  free  from  odors. 

197.  Buttermilk^  or  milk  deprived  of  most  of  its  fat  in 
the  process  of  butter  making,  is  a  wholesome  drink,  pleas- 
ant for  summer  use.  It  is  sometimes  prescribed  for  inva- 
lids. Skim-milk^  or  that  from  which  the  cream  has  been 
in  part  removed,  is  more  valuable  than  buttermilk,  as  it 

1  "  Composition  of  cow's  milk:  — 

Water 87.02  parts. 

Casein 4.48     " 

Butter 3.13      " 

Sugar  of  milk 4.77      " 

Mineral  ingredients 0.(50      " 

100.00."  —  Dalton. 
The  value  of  milk  as  a  food  is  not  appreciated  by  many  people,  though  it 
forms  a  large  part  of  the  diet  of  certain  communities.  It  is  too  often  regarded 
merely  as  a  "drink,"  a  "sup,"  or  a  "taste,"  and  not  as  a  nutritious  article 
of  food.  Goat's  milk  is  a  good  substitute  for  cow's  milk,  though  not  so  readily 
digested.  In  the  early  history  of  many  of  our  large  cities,  goats  and  cows 
were  driven  from  door  to  door  so  that  the  milk  might  be  obtained  warm  and 
fresh. 

2  Milk  may  even  appear  rich  (due  to  its  cream  or  fat,  which  rises  to  the 
surface),  and  yet  be  deficient  in  albumen  and  salts.  It  is  a  sad  fact  that  in 
large  cities,  unwholesome  milk,  known  as  "  swill  milk,"  "skimmed  milk," 
etc.,  is  largely  consumed  by  the  children  of  the  poor,  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
food,  and  is  responsible  for  many  deaths  among  them. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  133 

contains  more  of  the  various  ingredients  of  milk.  Whey^ 
or  milk  from  which  most  of  the  casein  has  been  removed 
in  the  process  of  cheese  making,  even  when  slightly  sour, 
is  readily  digested,  and  can  be  made  palatable  by  adding 
to  it  a  little  nutmeg  and  sugar.^ 

198.  Butter  is  a  most  important  food,  if  fresh  and 
sweet.  It  consists  principally  of  the  fat  of  milk,  with 
water,  and  a  small  quantity  of  casein  and  salts.  "Oleomar- 
garine," when  made  from  healthy  beef  fat,  is  undoubtedly 
preferable  to  poor  butter,  and  for  cooking  purposes  it  is 
superior  to  much  of  the  fat  that  is  used,  but  it  is  not  so 
palatable  or  nutritious  as  good  butter.^ 

199.  Cheese  contains  the  nitrogenous  elements  of  milk, 
but  not  in  a  very  digestible  form.  It  should  not  be  eaten 
in  large  quantities  by  any  one ;  and,  for  children  and  per- 
sons with  weak  digestion,  it  is  not  suitable,  except  in  mi- 
nute amount.  Very  young  children  should  never  eat  it. 
New  cheese  is  more  digestible.  Old  cheese,  however,  in 
small  quantity,  is  good  for  an  appetizer;  but  skim-milk 
cheese  is  almost  pure  casein  .and  hard  to  digest. 

200.  Eggs  are,  like  milk,  typical  articles  of  food.^    They 

1  In  referring  to  buttermilk,  Dr.  Chambers  says,  "  it  is  refreshing  and  nutri- 
tious, and  to  see  it  given  to  pigs,  instead  of  being  distributed  to  the  neighbors, 
makes  the  philanthropist's  heart  bleed."  "  Some  think  that  skim-milk  is 
worth  very  little,  and  buttermilk  still  less,  whilst  they  give  whey  (if  at  all) 
only  to  the  sick.  This  is  a  very  great  mistake,  and  the  poor  should  get  all  the 
buttermilk  and  skim-milk  they  can  obtain;  they  may  be  purchased  when  new 
milk  could  not  be  afforded."  — i^oocZs.    Edward  Smith,  M.D. 

2  Recently  there  has  been  introduced  into  the  market  a  substance  made 
from  cotton-seed  oil,  called  "cuisine,"  which  can  be  substituted  for  lard  and 
cheap  butter  in  cooking. 

3  "  Composition  of  eggs:  — 

WHITE   OF  BOG.  YOLK  OF  EGG. 

Water 80.00 53.78 

Albumen  and  mucus    .     .    15.28 12.75 

Yellow  oil 28.75 

Salts 4.72    .....      4.72 

100.00  100.00."— Dalton. 


134  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

are  most  digestible  when  eaten  soft  boiled,  or  in  omelets, 
or  incorporated  with  sugar,  starch,  or  flour,  as  in  plain 
puddings. 1 

201.  Vegetable  foods  include  the  cereals  or  "bread 
stuffs,"  "  garden  produce,"  and  fruits. 

The  cereal  grains  most  commonly  used  as  food  are 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  corn,  rye,  and  rice.  Wheat  is  rich  in 
nitrogenous  matter,  salts,  and  starch,  and  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  among  the  cereal  foods, — like  beef  among 
meats,  —  the  foremost  in  nutritive  value.  Barley  ranks 
next.  Rye,  though  containing  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen, 
is  not  generally  so  readily  digested  as  wheat  and  barley. 
Oatmeal  and  corn  contain  much  nitrogen,  and  more  fat 
than  the  other  cereal  grains,  and  are  valuable  to  persons 
not  troubled  with  weak  digestion.  Rice,  though  easily 
digested,  contains  a  large  amount  of  starch,  and  but  little 
nitrogen;  hence,  to  satisfy  the  appetite,  it  must  be  eaten 
in  large  quantity  if  taken  alone. 

202.  Cereals  resemble  each  other,  in  that  each  kind 
consists  of  a  starchy  body  enclosed  in  a  skin  or  husk 
(sometimes  of  several  layers)  which,  when  detached  from 
the  kernel,  is  known  as  "  bran."  Immediately  beneath  this 
husk  is  a  layer  rich  in  gluten,  oil,  and  salts.  The  husk  is 
generally  woody,  fibrous,  and  indigestible.  When  re- 
moved by  the  process  of  milling,  the  whole  grains  may 
be  used,  or  they  may  be  crushed,  as  in  the  case  of  wheaten 
grits  and  coarse  oatmeal,  or  ground  fine,  as  wheat  flour 
and  maize  meal.  The  finest  and  whitest  wheat  flour 
often  contains  much  starch  and  but  very  little  gluten. 
Flour  best  adapted  for  family  use   is  that  which  has  a 

1  Eggs  as  ordinarily  fried  are  particularly  hard  to  digest.  On  the  contrary, 
an  egg  broken  into  a  hot  dish  (containing  a  piece  of  good  butter),  over  a  hot 
fire,  rapidly  coagulates,  and  is  of  easy  digestion  if  eaten  while  hot. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  135 

slight  yellowish  tinge,  is  not  very  fine,  and  contains  suffi- 
cient gluten  to  form  a  coherent  ductile  dough  when  mixed 
with  a  little  water.  Flour  made  from  white  wheat  is 
whiter  than  that  from  red  wheat ;  but  the  yellowish  tinge 
in  the  darker  brands  of  flour  somewhat  fades  out  as  the 
flour  dries.i  It  will  make  darker  looking  bread  than 
pastry  flour,  but  is  sweeter  and  more  nutritious.^ 

203.  Bread  is  ordinaril}^  made  from  wheat  flour,  since 
other  flours  do  not  easily  mix  for  baking;  though  rye,  maize, 
and  oatmeal  may  be  combined  in  varying  proportions  with 
wheat  flour  for  various  kinds  of  bread.  Good  bread  may 
well  be  called  the  "staff  of  life,"  the  only  nutritious  ele- 
ment deficient  in  it  being  fat.^  This  is  commonly  supplied 
by  butter  or  oil.*  Hot,  poorly  cooked,  or  very  moist 
bread  is  not  digested  with  ease.  Leavened  bread,  z.e., 
bread  "raised,"  or  made  light  and  spongy  by  means  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  forced  through  the  sponge  (as  the  doughy 
mass  is  called),  is  much  more  easily  digested  than  unleav- 
ened bread,  —  which  is  a  mixture  merely  of  flour,  water, 
and   salt, — such   as    "pilot   biscuit"    and    "hard   tack." 

1  The  old-time  custom  of  squeezing  the  dry  flour  iu  the  hand,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  the  proportion  of  gluten  as  shown  by  its  cohesive  qualities,  will 
not  hold  good  with  flour  made  by  the  "new  process";  and  even  the  test  of 
pulling  the  moist  flour  between  the  fingers  does  not  always  prove  true.  In 
fact,  the  only  absolute  proof  of  good  flour  seems  to  be  in  the  cooking,  though  it 
is  said  that  flour  rich  in  gluten  takes  up  a  great  deal  of  water  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk. 

2  Oatmeal  and  barley  are  sometimes  not  relislied,  because  of  a  "burnt" 
taste  given  in  the  process  of  kiln  drying,  or  a  musty  odor  and  taste  from 
having  been  kept  in  a  moist  state.  "The  steam-cooked  cereals,"  being  partly 
cooked,  are  easily  prepared  for  the  table,  and,  owing  to  the  partial  change  of 
starch  into  dextrine,  are  quite  readily  digested.  Rye  should  be  selected  with 
care,  as  diseased  or  spurred  rye,  —  known  as  ergot,  —  may  cause  severe  sick- 
ness and  even  death.  Mouldy  maize  is  capable  of  producing  a  serious  skin 
disease  known  as  Pellagra,  which  is  said  to  be  quite  common  in  Lombardy. 

3  "Good  flour,  well  baked,  yields  about  136  lbs.  of  bread  per  100  lbs.  of 
flour."  —  Handbook  of  Ili/fjiene,  etc.    Wilson. 

4  Butter  therefore  is  the  "golden  head "  of  the  "  staff." 


136  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

Leavening  is  effected  by  means  of  a  fermentation  gene- 
rated in  dough  by  yeast,  or  by  a  batter  of  flour  and  water, 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  100°  to  110°  F.,  for  five  or  six 
hours,^  or  by  a  piece  of  fermented  dough.  Carbonic  acid 
gas,  forced  through  dough  by  machinery,  makes  what  is 
called  "  aerated  bread."  This  gas  is  generated  in  the  mak- 
ing of  bread,  biscuit,  etc.,  by  the  proper  combination  of 
soda  and  cream  of  tartar,  or  other  substances.  Unbolted 
wheat  flour  makes  the  brown  bread  of  Europe,  and  Graham 
bread.2  Such  bread  is  wholesome,  but  contains  so  much 
bran  that  it  should  be  eaten  with  caution  by  persons  of 
weak  digestion.^ 

204.  Vegetables  are  furnished  in  our  best  markets  in 
greater  or  less  variety  throughout  the  entire  year.  Not- 
withstanding this  supply,  they  are  comparatively  but 
little  used,  or  certain  kinds  are  used  to  the  exclusion  of 
others,  (a.)  No  vegetable  is  more  useful  than  the  Avhite, 
or  so-called  Irish  potato.  It  may  well  be  called  the  king 
of  vegetables,  for  it  agrees  with  the  majority  of  persons, 
and  can  be  obtained  in  every  season  of  the  year.  And 
yet,  "  hardly  2^  of  its  25  per  cent  of  solid  matters  is 
nitrogenous."^  Potatoes  are  deficient  also  in  fat  and 
salts,  and  should  be  eaten  with  butter  and  salt,  pot  liquor, 
meat  gravy,  or  fat  meat.  They  resemble  rice  in  the  large 
amount  of  starch  they  contain,  and,  like  rice,  must  be 
consumed  in  considerable  quantity  if  they  form  the  main 
ingredient  of  the  diet. 


1  A  little  salt  added  to  the  batter  promotes  the  fermentation,  and  gives  it 
the  name  of  "salt-raised  bread."  When  milk  is  used  instead  of  water,  it  is 
called  "  milk-emptyings  bread," 

2  Named  after  Mr.  Graham,  the  founder  of  so-called  "Grahamism." 

3  The  brown  bread  made  from  flour,  in  which  bran  or  woody  fibre  is 
almost  entirely  excluded,  is  readily  digested. 

*  Letheby  on  Food. 


FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  137 

Mapother  claims  that  the  almost  exclusive  reliance  upon 
the  potato  in  certain  parts  of  Ireland  has  depressed  the 
spirit  and  energy  of  the  inhabitants,  and  he  urges  them  to 
raise  and  use  more  of  other  vegetables.^ 

205.  Sweet  potatoes^  though  not  quite,  so  digestible  as 
white,  are  wholesome.  The  yam  varieties,  which  are  eaten 
so  much  in  warm  countries,  are  sometimes  mixed  in  corn 
meal  bread.  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  onions,  leeks,  oyster 
plant,  squash,  and  other  vegetables,  are  valuable  additions 
to  the  table. 2  Potatoes,  fresh,  succulent,  and  green,  or 
salad  vegetables,  —  such  as  tomatoes,  cabbage,  greens, 
lettuce,  celery,  corn,  and  cucumbers,  —  are  excellent  pre- 
ventives of  scurvy,  as  we  have  already  seen ;  and  in  the 
spring  their  juices  and  salts  are  eminently  beneficial.^  (a.) 

206.  Peas,  beans,  and  leyitils  contain  considerable  starch 
and  a  large  amount  of  albuminoid  material.  When  dried 
they  are  not  easily  digested  by  persons  leading  a  sedentary 
life.  Yet  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  they  can 
be  transported  and  preserved,  these  foods  are  valuable 
wherever  large  numbers  are  to  be  provided  for.  But,  as 
is  the  case  with  some  other  vegetable  foods,  they  require 
more  thorough  cooking  and  mastication  than  meat,  though 
there  is  a  popular  belief  to  the  contrary.*  (a.) 

1  Mapother  undoubtedly  refers  to  the  poorest  classes,  who  cannot  obtain 
sufficient  nitrogenous  food,  — even  milk  to  use  with  their  potatoes,  — and  who 
are  also  depressed  by  the  want  of  variety  in  food. 

2  Carrots  and  some  other  vegetables  are  considered  by  many  persons  as  fit 
only  for  cattle;  whereas,  the  fact  is,  that  if  the  same  attention  was  paid  to 
their  preparation  and  cooking,  as  is  spent  upon  other  foods,  they  would  often- 
times be  considered  even  delicious.  The  French  and  Germans  excel  in  this 
direction. 

3  Such  vegetables,  together  with  fruits,  are  preferable  to  sulphur  and  mo- 
lasses or  so-called  "  spring  medicines." 

•*  It  is  said  that  General  Scott,  in  referring  to  want  of  variety  in  the  dietary 
of  many  of  the  soldiers,  used  to  say  '*  that  beans  had  killed  more  than  bullets." 


138  FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

20 7.  Fruits  are  particularly  esteemed  for  their  juices, 
which  consist  of  water,  salts,  sugar,  and  vegetable  acids,  {a.) 
The  amount  of  albuminoid  material  they  contain  is  very 
small.  Fresh  fruits  serve  to  quench  the  thirst,  to  supply 
acids,  sugar,  etc.,  to  stimulate  the  appetite  for  more  sub- 
stantial food,  and  to  assist  in  its  digestion. ^  Grapes, 
peaches,  oranges,  strawberries,  cherries,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, plums,  bananas,  apples,  pears,  and  apricots,  are 
considered  the  most  digestible.^ 

208.  On  the  other  hand,  melons  and  other  cold,  watery 
fruits,  are  likely  to  interfere  with  digestion,  especially  if 
eaten  abundantly  at  meal  times.^  Fruit  is  said  to  be 
"  gold  in  the  morning,  silver  at  noon,  and  lead  at  night." 
Cooked  fruits  may  be  eaten  with  benefit  at  any  meal. 
Fruits  with  small  seeds  should,  if  taken  in  large  quantity, 
be  eaten  with  bread,  so  that  the  small  and  numerous  seeds 
may  not  prove  irritant,  or  lodge  in  the  appendix  vermifor- 
mis.  Dried  fruits,  raisins,  dates,  etc.,  contain  much  sugar, 
and  must  be  eaten  in  smaller  quantity  than  fresh  fruits.* 
Nuts  contain  a  iarge  amount  of  nitrogenous  and  more  or 
less  fat  material,  and  should  be  thoroughly  chewed,  and 
eaten  in  moderation. 

209.  Condiments  are  substances  which  sharpen  the 
appetite,  give  a  relish  to  food,  and  stimulate  the  digestive 

1  "  In  hot  climates  these  refreshing  fruits  grow  in  great  abundance,  and  ren- 
der a  residence  in  the  tropics  tolerable.  A  slice  of  melon  or  other  fruit  is  the 
common  gratuity  given  in  addition  to  the  regular  charge  for  any  service  in  hot 
climates,  and  forms  a  contrast  to  the  lump  of  fat  which  is  its  equivalent  with 
the  Esquimaux."  —  Maintenance  of  Health.    Fothergill. 

-  Bananas  contain  nitrogen,  and  form  an  important  article  of  food  in  the 
countries  where  they  are  raised. 

3  Fresh,  ripe  melons  of  a  good  variety  are  advantageous  in  fevers,  and 
whenever  the  system  is  being  weakened  by  watery  discharges. 

4  Dates,  used  so  largely  as  food  in  hot  countries,  are  said  not  to  be  the 
saccharine  dates  we  eat  as  sweetmeats,  but  are  almost  entirely  farinaceous. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS.  139 

organs.  Of  these,  salt,  pepper  (especially  the  red),  mus- 
tard, vinegar,  ginger,  and  horse-radish  are  the  most  import- 
ant.^ Pickles,  olives,  lemon  juice,  and  sauces  belong  also 
to  this  class  of  accessory  foods.  An  immoderate  use  of 
condiments  is  injurious,  for  it  causes  the  consumption  of 
more  food  than  the  system  requires,  and  perverts  the 
appetite. 

Savory  herbs,  sage,  thyme,  sweet  marjoram,  parsley, 
etc.,  should  be  used  to  make  certain  foods  palatable,  and 
can  often  be  substituted  with  advantage  for  more  stimu- 
lating condiments,  (a.) 

210.  Brinks  may  be  divided  into  natural  and  artificial. 
The  first  class  includes  water,  and  milk ;  while  the  second 
embraces  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  alcoholic  stimulants. 
Water^  as  we  have  seen,  is  an  important  constituent  of 
the  body  and  of  all  kinds  of  food,  (a.)  It  is  of  the  first 
importance  that  drinking  water  should  be  good.  Pure 
water,  chemically  speaking,  or  that  consisting  only  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  is  probably  never  found  in  nature, 
but  may  be  obtained  by  distillation.  It  has  a  flat  taste 
and  is  not  palatable.  Rain  water,  especially  that  which 
falls  at  the  end  of  a  shower,  is  nearly  pure,  and  is  more 
palatable  than  distilled  water  on  account  of  the  air  it 
contains.  In  places  where  the  water  supply  is  not  abun- 
dant, rain  water  may  be  used  for  drinking  if  carefully 
collected  and  filtered ;  but  if  allowed  to  run  over  dirty 
roofs,  or  over  decaying  leaves  and  other  vegetable 
growths,  it  assumes  an  unpleasant  taste  and  may  prove 
hurtful. 

1  "Hard  work  and  attendant  good  appetite  require  little  else  than  common 
salt  as  a  condiment,  which  should  be  i)lentifully  used.  It  was  said  by  Plutarch 
that  hinif/er  and  Milt  were  the  only  sauces  known  to  the  ancients;  and  the  very 
word  'sauce'  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  salsus,  'salted.'"  —  Health, 
and  How  to  Promote  it.    McSherry. 


140  FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

211.  Drinking  water  is  usually  obtained  as  surface 
water  from  brooks,  rivers,  lakes,  etc. ;  "  ground  water " 
from  shallow  wells  and  springs ;  and  "  deep-seated  water  " 
from  deep  wells  and  springs.  Probably  the  best  form  of 
drinking  water  is  good  spring  water,  that  is,  from  rain  or 
snow,  which,  after  filtering  through  rocks  and  gravelly 
soil,  gushes  forth  clear  and  sparkling  into  the  air.  (a.) 
Water  from  deep  wells,  fed  as  they  are  by  underground 
streams,  is  much  purer  than  that  from  shallow  wells, 
which  is  largely  the  drainage  from  the  upper  or  impurer 
layers  of  the  soil,  and  has  less  chance  of  being  thoroughly 
filtered  by  percolation  through  a  great  depth  of  soil.^  Ex- 
amples of  deep  wells  are  the  artesian  wells,  and  such  wells 
as  that  at  Garden  City,  L.I,^  and  that  at  Prospect  Park, 
Brooklyn,  which  last  supplies  with  water  a  large  part  of 
Coney  Island  five  miles  away. 

212.  Stagnant  water,  or  that  containing  ani/  decaying 
animal  or  vegetable  matter,  is  unfit  to  drink.^     Sometimes 


1  Examinations  made  from  time  to  time  of  the  water  from  shallow  wells, 
in  cities  and  towns,  have  shown  it  to  be  frequently  contaminated  by  filth 
from  cesspools  and  other  sources.  These  reservoirs  in  many  instances  were 
but  from  25  to  30  feet  distant,  and  sometimes  on  a  higher  plane;  accord- 
ing to  good  authorities  they  should  be  at  least  100  feet  away  from  drinking 
wells. 

2  Artesian  wells  vary  in  depth  from  one  to  three  or  more  thousand  feet. 
Such  wells  are  used -in  abattoirs,  breweries,  and  other  large  establishments, 
where  larger  quantities  of  water  are  needed  than  can  be  furnished  by  the 
ordinary  water  sui)ply  of  cities. 

3  Dead  animals  remaining  in  running  streams  may  poison  the  water  for  a 
long  distance  from  the  source  of  the  trouble.  According  to  Dr.  Smart  of  the 
U.  S.  Army,  "shallow  wells  and  defective  cisterns  are  often  found  filled  with 
water  possessing  many  of  the  characteristics  of  marsh  water,  and  at  such 
places  will  be  fovmd  cases  of  malaria,  though  the  blame  is  invariably  laid  to  a 
swamp  or  a  mill-pond  if  there  happen  to  be  one  near.  Wherever  there  is  a 
plenty  of  pure  water,  free  from  decaying  organic  matter,  there  is  health.  "  — 
From  Paper  read  at  the  American  Public  Health  Association's  Annual  Meet- 
ing, 1883. 


FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS.  141 

water  is  a  fruitful  source  of  the  most  serious  infectious 
diseases,  such  as  typhoid  fever  and  cholera,  by  reason  of 
the  disease  germs  which  it  contains,  and  which  may  be 
carried  long  distances  in  it.  The  impurities  in  deep 

and  sluggish  streams  are  more  likely  to  continue  than  in 
brooks  and  other  shallow,  active  streams,  whose  water  is 
more  freely  exposed  to  the  purifying  influences  of  the 
atmosphere ;  yet  the  larger  streams,  on  account  of  the 
abundance  of  water  they  furnish,  and  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  obtained,  are  mainly  relied  upon  for  the  water 
supply  of  cities  and  large  towns.  Water  taken  from  them 
for  drinking  purposes  should  be  obtained  from  the  middle 
of  the  stream  and  somewhat  below  the  surface,  as  the  ref- 
use from  factories,  drains,  etc.,  which  finds  its  way  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  into  these  rivers  and  creeks,  is  most 
apt  to  flow  along  the  sides.^ 

213.  The  mode  of  conveying  drinking  water  from  its 
source  of  supply  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  Usually 
wood,  lead,  or  iron  pipes  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Rain 
water,  or  any  water  which  is  deficient  in  saline  ingredients, 
flowing  through  lead  pipes,  may  dissolve  enough  lead  to 
render  it  poisonous.  Saline  ingredients  in  some  river, 
well,  and  spring  waters,  by  partial  decomposition,  line  the 
pipes  with  a  crust,  and  generally  prevent  this  absorption. 
Sometimes  the  water,  especially  if  hot^  will  dissolve  enough 


1  "  The  river  Rhine,  it  is  well  known, 
Doth  wash  your  city  of  Cologne ; 
But  tell  rae,  nymphs !  what  power  divine 
Shall  henceforth  wash  the  river  Rhine?  "  —  Coleridge. 

The  answer  is,  —  the  oxidizing  influences  of  the  atmosphere.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  farther  away  from  the  source  of  the  impurities,  the  better  is 
the  water  for  drinking  purposes.  This  is  true  of  ordinary  organic  imi)urities, 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  germs  of  disease  are  not  so  readily  ren- 
dered harmless. 


142  FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS. 

lead  to  become  injurious.^  It  is  wise  to  allow  both  hot 
and  cold  water  to  run  a  while  before  using  it  for  drinking 
or  cooking.  Hot  water  acts  upon  iron  pipes  and  acquires 
a  disagreeable  taste.  To  obviate  the  risks  above  referred 
to,  block  tin,  tin-lined  lead  pipes,  and  glass-lined  iron  pipes 
are  now  recommended  by  sanitary  authorities. 

214.  Ordinary  drinking  waters  usually  contain  in 
various  proportions  sach  salts  as  common  salt,  and  sodium, 
lime  and  magnesium  carbonates,  also  some  air,  as  well  as 
carbonic  acid  gas,  which  last  gives  a  sparkling  appearance 
and  an  agreeable  taste  to  water.  Mineral  waters,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  contain  in  addition,  iron,  sulphur,  or 
other  mineral  ingredients,  and  are  useful  as  medicine. 

Water  containing  an  excess  of  salts,  especially  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  is  known  as  hard  water.  This  hardness 
may  be  temporary  or  permanent ;  if  temporary,  it  is  due 
to  calcium  and  magnesium  bi-carbonates,  which  salts  may 
be  precipitated  by  boiling,  thus  rendering  the  water  soft, 
and  in  the  best  condition  for  drinking.  Permanently  hard 
water  is  due  to  calcium  sulphate  and  magnesium  sulphate, 
which  cannot  be  precipitated  by  boiling.^ 

Hard  water  is  not  suitable  for  cleansing  purposes,  as  it 
forms  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  fats  of  the  soap 
used,  which  floats  as  a  scum  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water.^ 


1  Lead  pipes  should  not  be  used  for  soda-water  fountains,  as  the  carbonated 
water  dissolves  lead  readily.  The  presence  of  lead  in  water  may  be  detected 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  If  lead  be 
present,  will  render  the  water  black,  or  dark  brown,  owing  to  the  sulphuret  of 
lead  formed. 

2  Hard  water  may  be  softened  by  the  addition  of  wood  ashes,  or  sodium 
carbonate 

3  It  is  said  that  in  Glasgow,  by  the  introduction  of  water  from  Loch  Ka- 
trine, the  inhabitants  saved  in  one  year  thousands  of  dollars  in  soap,  the  water 
used  before  having  been  very  har^. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  143 

215.  The  best  drinking  water  is  that  which  is  clean, 
colorless,  and  without  odor  even  after  boiling ,  and  is  soft, 
and  has  just  enough  salt,  air,  and  carbonic  acid  in  it  to 
make  it  palatable.  Water  may  be  clear  and  sparkling 
and  still  be  impure  and  dangerous ;  especially  is  this  true 
of  well  water  which  has  filtered  through  graveyards  or 
soils  polluted  by  cesspools,  barnyards,  etc.  That  dirty 
looking  waters  are  not  necessarily  unfit  for  drinking  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  muddy  water  of  the  Missis- 
sippi is  drunk  with  impunity  by  those  accustomed  to  it. 

The  "green  scum"  found  on  ponds  and  along  the  edges 
of  some  streams  consists  mainly  of  lowly-organized  plants, 
algae,  etc.  In  small  quantity  they  are  not  injurious,  but 
if  luxuriant,  their  growth  indicates  the  presence  of  organic 
matter  which  is  hurtful.  If  they  die  and  decay,  they  tend 
to  spoil  the  water  in  which  they  are.  (a.)  Water  from 
melting  ice  is^  usually  purer  than  that  from  which  the  ice 
was  formed,  for  freezing  is  a  purifying  process;  but  ice 
from  stagnant  ponds,  or  from  water  which  contains  much 
organic  matter,  is  unfit  for  use.  Whenever  there  is 

reason  to  believe  that  water  is  unwholesome,  it  should  be 
examined  both  microscopically  and  chemically  by  compe- 
tent persons.^ 

1  Organic  matters  in  drinking  water,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  injurious, 
may  sometimes  be  detected  by  the  following  simple  means :  First,  evaporate  a 
saucer  full  of  water  by  heat,  and  observe  the  color  of  the  residue.  If  it  is 
brown  or  black,  or  turns  black  on  further  heating,  the  water  is  unsafe;  Second, 
'*  Add  a  lump  of  white  sugar  to  a  vial  of  water,  and  keep  it  corked  for  a  few 
days.  If  it  contain  much  organic  matter  it  will  become  in  that  time  percep- 
tibly turbid;"  Third,  "  if  it  has  an  unpleasant  smell  when  corked  in  a  bottle 
and  kept  in  a  tolerably  warm  place  (say  at  70^  F.)  for  three  or  four  days." 

Chemists  judge  of  the  amount  of  the  animal  or  more  dangerous  impurities 
in  water  by  the  relative  quantities  present  of  the  nitrates,  nitrites,  chlorides, 
and  of  the  ammonia  salts,  —  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  albuminoids. 
Recently  it  has  been  proposed  to  judge  of  the  wholesomeness  of  waters  by  the 
relative  ease  with  which  different  specimens  support  the  growth  of  vegetable 
organisms  introduced  into  them. 


144  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

216.  Water,  by  various  methods,  may  be  rid  of  much 

of  its  injurious  matter.  Boiling  will  precipitate  the  bi-car- 
bonate  of  lime  and  some  of  the  coagulable  organic  matter, 
and  destroy  some  of  the  disease  germs.  Aeration  will 
render  stale  or  confined  waters  palatable.  Allowing  them 
to  settle  will  render  some  muddy  waters  fit  for  drinking. 
This  settling  may  be  facilitated  by  jDreviously  stirring  a 
little  alum  into  the  water.^  Proper  filtration  will  partially 
remove  not  only  suspended  but  even  some  dissolved 
organic  impurities.  The  filtrating  substance  may  be 
porous  earth,  sand,  charcoal,  certain  insoluble  powders, 
fine  gravel,  sponge,  etc.,  either  alone  or  variously  com- 
bined. Charcoal,  oxide  of  iron,  and  sand,  are  the 
most  active.  Filters  act  partly  by  sifting  out  solid  par- 
ticles, and  partly  by  an  oxidation  of  the  organic  sub- 
stances, by  means  of  the  oxygen  in  the  pores  of  the 
material  used.^  (a.)  / 

217.  Coffee  and  tea  are  not  positive  foods,  but  in  mod- 
erate quantities  stimulate  dormant  energies,  tend  to  retard 
waste,  and  assist  in  the  digestion  of  other  foods.  Hence 
they  are  best  adapted  for  use  after  a  hearty  meal,  but  can- 
not take  the  place  of  the  positive  foods.  They  are  supe- 
rior at  nearly  all  times  to  alcoholic  stimulants,  and  are 
especially  valuable  in  armies,  or  wherever  the  food  supply 
is  precarious.  But  they  should  not  be  taken  in  large 
amounts,  nor  very  strong,  for,  thus  taken,  they  act  ulti- 

1  In  India  a  kind  of  nut  is  used  to  coagulate  the  albuminous  matters,  and 
precipitate  dirt,  etc. 

2  "  Probably  the  best  filter  is  one  composed  of  finely-divided  silicon  and 
carbon,  pressed  into  a  solid  cake.  This  filter,  when  dry  and  clean,  will  remove 
a  large  quantity  of  organic  impurity  as  well  as  lead  from  the  water  passed 
through  it.  Prepared  for  soldiers'  use,  it  was  carried  by  the  English  soldiers 
in  the  late  war  in  Egypt,  and  found  to  be  of  great  service.  Placed  in  even  the 
dirtiest  water,  the  fluid  was  sucked  through  the  filtering  mass  by  means  of  a 
rubber  tube  and  mouth  piece,  and  was  rendered  fit  for  drinking." 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  145 

inately  as  depressants  of  the  nervous  system.  If  relied 
upon  to  supply  by  their  stimulus  the  place  of  nourishing 
food,  they  produce  indigestion  and  nervousness.  Tea  and 
coffee  are  similar  in  action,  though  they  sometimes  affect 
persons  differently.  Each  contains  a  volatile  oil  which 
gives  odor  and  flavor,  an  astringent  (tannic  acid),  and  an 
active  principle,  —  theine  in  tea,  and  caffeine  in  coffee.^ 

218.  Chocolate  and  cocoa  contain  fatty  matter,  also 
albuminous  and  starchy  materials,  and  a  substance  similar 
to  theine  and  caffeine  known  as  theobromine.  They  are  not 
so  stimulating  as  coffee  and  tea,  but  are  much  better  as 
food.  As  Dr.  Edward  Smith  remarks  in  his  valuable  book 
on  "  Health,"  "  Perhaps  few  foods  are  so  nutritious  or 
will  satisfy  the  appetite  so  well  as  cocoa  and  milk,  if 
plenty  of  cocoa  be  used,  and  it  is  equally  good  for  all 
ages,  classes,  and  circumstances."  ^ 

1  Recently  rations  of  coffee  have  been  supplied  with  advantage  to. the  sailors 
on  some  of  the  great  ocean  steamers  in  place  of  their  much-esteemed  "  grog." 

An  investigation  a  few  years  ago,  by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health,  showed  that  throughout  New  England  much  of  the  ill  health  was  due 
to  the  large  quantity  of  tea  and  coffee  drunk,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  foods. 
Physicians  find  that  much  of  the  dyspepsia,  bad  feelings,  nervous  ail- 
ments, etc.,  among  women  are  due  to  the  fact  that  ladies,  in  the  absence  of 
their  husbands,  live  upon  tea  and  bread  rather  than  do  the  cooking,  and  also 
to  the  fact  that  among  the  poor  tea  is  used  because  it  is  considered  cheap  and 
nutritious. 

Teas  are  classified  as  green  and  hlack :  the  first  being  the  young  leaves, 
steamed,  withered,  rolled,  and  dried  quickly.  Black  tea  consists  of  the  older 
leaves  which  have  been  slowly  dried,  and  have  undergone  chemical  changes  on 
exposure  to  air,  etc.  A  smaller  amount  of  green  tea  is  necessary  than  of  black. 
In  preparing  tea  for  a  beverage,  the  object  is  to  retain  the  odor  as  well  as  the 
other  constituents.  Lukewarm  water  will  not  dissolve  the  thein.  Boiling  will 
di'ive  off  the  volatile  oil  and  dissolve  too  much  tannin.  Boiling  water  poured 
upon  tea  in  close  vessels  will  retain  its  constituents.  Among  tea  merchants 
and  the  Chinese  the  plan  is  to  put  tea  into  a  cup,  pour  boiling  water  over  it, 
cover  the  cup  with  a  saucer,  and  let  it  stand  a  while. 

-  The  fresher  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  the  better.  Cocoa,  especially  if  re- 
tained in  close  packages  in  close  apartments,  becomes  musty;  and,  if  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  long  time,  loses  its  flavor;  hence,  in  some  cities,  it  is  freshly 
prepared  every  day  by  dealers.  Unlike  coffee  and  tea,  there  should  be  no 
grounds  which  cannot  be  eaten. 


146  FOODS. — ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 

219.  Alcoholic  drinks  comprise  :  first,  malt  liquors,  ale, 
beer,  porter,  and  stout;  second,  wines  of  various  kinds; 
and  third,  spirits,  or  whiskey,  rum,  gin,  and  brandy. 
There  are  also  other  powerful  stimulants,  such  as  the 
cordials ;  and  the  milder  stimulants,  such  as  cider,  and 
beer  made  from  roots. 

220.  All  of  the  above  fluids  contain  alcohol  in  varying 
proportions  as  the  active  ingredient.^  This  substance,  one 
of  the  results  of  fermentation,  acts  as  a  temporary  stimu- 
lant to  the  body,  if  taken  in  small  quantities.  In  larger 
amount  it  acts  strongly  upon  the  nervous  system,  deadens 
sensibility,  and  induces  irregular  muscular  action,  —  in 
other  words,  intoxicates. 

In  still  larger  amount  it  is  a  decided  poison^  capable  of 
destroying  life  in  the  young,  the  feeble,  the  old,  and  those 
not  accustomed  to  its  use.  The  tendency  of  the  indulgence 
in  any  form  of  alcoholic  drink  is,  to  weaken  and  at  last 
destroy -the  control  of  the  moral  nature,  as  well  as  to 
undermine  the  general  health.  "The  evils  of  alcoholic 
intemperance  are  familiar  to  all,  and  it  is  needless  to 
repeat  the  details  of  its  horrors.  The  sad  story  is  told 
every  morning  in  our  police  courts,  and  the  newspapers 
are  foul  with  their  recitals  of  desperate  deeds.  Yet 
the  worst  evils  of  intemperance  are  those  i\iQ  least 
known  and  least  noticed.  The  gradual  changes  induced 
in  the  nervous  system,  the  slow  poisoning  of  the  great 
centers  of  thought,  —  the  transmission  from  parent  to 
child,  from  generation  to  generation,  of  nervous  tenden- 

1  Malt  liquors  contain  the  smallest  portion  of  alcohol,  10  per  cent  being 
about  the  largest  amount  found  in  them.  Light  wines,  such  as  champagne, 
contain  about  10  per  cent;  heavier  wines,  such  as  sherry  and  port,  17  to  19  per 
cent;  and  wines  which  have  been  "  brandied  "  or  "  fortified,"  i.e.,  had  spirits 
added,  have  as  high  as  35  per  cent.  Of  spirits,  gin  has  38  to  39  per  cent  by 
volume;  whiskey,  45  to  4:6  per  cent;  rum,  48i  per  cent;  and  brandy,  50  to  54 
per  cent. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS.  147 

cies,  progressive  mental  weakness,  imbecility,  insanity, 
idiocy,  are  evils  which  far  outweigh  the  results  of  the 
midnight  brawl,  the  mother's  sorrow,  and  the  orphan's 
tears." 

221.  Malt  liquors  contain  some  of  the  nourishing 
elements  of  the  barley  and  wheat  from  which  they  are 
made,  and  the  malt  acts  as  a  tonic ;  but  with  the  excess  of 
alcohol  and  water  imbibed,  habitual  drinkers  of  malt 
liquors  are  likely  to  be  bloated  from  the  thinning  of  their 
blood,  and  to  become  logy  and  stupid. 

Light  iviyies^  cider,  ginger  beer,  and  similar  drinks,  act 
merely  as  slight  stimulants  to  the  circulation,  and  thus 
increase  temporarily  nervous  energy.  Frequent  resort 
to  them  induces  artificial  tastes  and  appetites,  and  the 
desire  for  the  stronger  stimulation  which  heavy  wines  and 
spirits  afford.  Spirits,  the  strongest  of  the  alcoholic  stim- 
ulants, cannot  be  used  with  too  much  caution.  They  fre- 
quently produce  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  and  other 
important  organs,  cause  thickening  and  contraction  of  the 
connective  tissue  of  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  brain,  and  so 
impair  their  functional  activity. 

Notwithstanding  the  widespread  consumption  of  stimu- 
lants thoroughout  the  world,  alcohol  is  not  necessary  for 
persons  in  healtJi.  It  is  a  valuable  medicinal  agent ;  but  its 
abuse  even  as  a  medicine  should  be  guarded  against,  (a.) 

222.  Alcoholic  drinks  are  frequently  taken  under  the 
impression  that  they  afford  warmth.  But  the  increased 
bodily  temperature  they  arouse  is  only  temporary,  and 
depends  mainty  upon  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  alcohol 
upon  the  circulation.  The  bodily  heat  is  in  the  end 
diminished,  so  much  sometimes  that  persons  relying  upon 
such  stimulation  for  warmth  are  apt  to  suffer  intensely 


148  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS. 

when  exposed  to  severe  cold.^  (a.)  From  the  fact  that 
these  drinks  by  their  stimulating  properties  prevent  tem- 
porary waste,  they  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  food,  but 
are  inferior  to  hot  cocoa,  tea,  coffee,  or  soups,  the  stimulant 
effects  of  which  are  more  permanent,  and  are  not  followed, 
as  a  rule,  by  depression,  as  in  the  case  of  the  alcoholic 
stimulants,  thereby  producing  an  apparent  need  of  re- 
peated stimulation. 2 

Indeed  so  great  and  unnatural  a  craving  is  often  gener- 
ated, that  men  will  drink  with  avidity  alcohol  in  which  are 
decomposing  materials  or  the  bitterest  substances,  such  as 
quinine,  or  will  drain  at  one  gulp  the  vilest  and  strongest 
liquor  without  an  attempt  at  dilution. 

223.  Tobacco  is  another  substance  which  is  largely  used 
and  also  abused.  Its  temperate  use  may  not  apparently 
affect  adults  unpleasantly,  and  under  certain  circumstances 
may  even  be  advised,  yet  its  use  by  the  young  is  attended 
with  more  or  less  danger,  depending  upon  the  age  and 
temperament,  and  upon  the  quantity  of  tobacco  used.^ 

1  "  The  faU  of  temperature,  after  the  use  of  alcohol,  is  to  be  explained  by  its 
effect  in  dilating  the  capillaries  of  the  skin,  thus  allowing  freer  transpiration 
of  watery  vapor  and  radiation  of  heat,  and  this  supplies  a  strong  argument 
against  the  consumption  of  alcohol  by  those  who  are  likely  to  be  exposed 
to  a  very  low  atmospheric  temperature."  —  Human  Physiology.  Henry 
Power,  F.R.L.S. 

2  Dr.  Kane,  in  his  "Arctic  Explorations,"  says,  "Coffee  in  the  morning 
seemed  to  last  the  men  through  a  large  part  of  the  day,  and  tea  soothed  them 
after  a  day's  labor  and  exposure.  They  both  operated  upon  fatigued  aud  over- 
taxed men  like  a  charm,  and  their  superiority  over  alcoholic  stimulants  was 
very  marked." 

"  Two  tablespoonfuls  of  oatmeal,  with  one  of  pease  meal,  made  into  a  liquid, 
with  milk  and  boiling  water,  and  flavored  according  to  taste  with  salt  or  with 
sugar,  forms  a  drink  worth  any  number  of  glasses  of  ale  or  other  alcoholic 
fluid."  —  TemjJerance  Lesson  Book.    Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson.    London. 

3  Unfortunately  a  common  and  reprehensible  habit  in  our  cities  and  large 
towns,  among  even  very  young  boys,  is  that  of  cigarette  smoking.  It  is  a 
deplorable  fact  that  cigarettes  are  so  cheap  and  the  sale  so  open  that  they  are 
easily  procured  by  children  in  many  of  the  candy  and  notion  stores  near  to 
our  public  and  private  schools. 


FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC   STIMULANTS.  149 

The  habitual  use  of  tobacco,  especially  by  the  young  and 
persons  of  a  nervous  temperament,  is  liable  to  produce  an 
irritable  condition  of  the  heart  and  brain,  to  destroy  the 
appetite,  decrease  the  digestive  secretions,  and  seriously 
impair  the  health,  (a.)  Even  when  used  in  small  amount 
by  such  persons,  the  capacity  for  study  and  application 
is  lessened  by  "headache,  confusion  of  intellect,  loss  of 
memory,  impaired  power  of  attention,  lassitude,  indispo- 
sition to  muscular  effort,  nausea,  want  of  appetite,  dyspep- 
sia, palpitation,  tremulousness,  disturbed  sleep,  impaired 
vision,  etc."  ^ 

By  some,  tobacco  has  been  ranked  as  a  food,  but  it  con- 
tains no  nourishment.  Its  action  is  upon  the  nervous 
system  and  at  times,  as  with  overworked  and  tired  soldiers 
on  a  march,  it  may  arouse  the  dormant  nervous  energies. 

224.  Other  substances  besides  alcohol  and  tobacco, 
which  are  largely  used  for  their  stimulant  or  narcotic 
effects,  are  opium,  Indian  hemp  or  hasheesh,  coca,  and  the 
betel  nut.  The  frequent  use  of  any  of  them  decreases  the 
appetite,  and  creates  a  desire  for  stimulation.  Opium  is 
the  most  seductive  of  them  all:  "By  its  soothing  and 
exhilarating  influence  it  gains  such  a  hold  on  the  moral 
and  physical  nature  that  the  strongest  will  is  unable  to 
emancipate  the  victim  from  its  enchantment."  It  is  indis- 
pensible  as  a  medicine,  but  its  frequent  use  as  a  stimulant, 
and  in  cough  mixtures,  soothing  syrups,  cordials,  carmini- 
tives,  and  other  compounds,  interferes  with  the  assimila- 
tion of  food,  and  enervates  the  system.  The  same  effects 
follow  the  use  of  chloral,  a  substance  which  is  too  fre- 
quently employed  without  reason,  and  indiscriminately. 

1  Extract  from  a  report  by  a  special  navy  medical  board,  to  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Dec.  3,  1875,  on  the  use  of  tobacco  by 
the  cadets. 


150  FOODS.  —  ALCOHOLIC    STIMULANTS. 


QUESTIONS. 

1 .  How  may  foods  be  classified  ? 

2.  What  do  animal  foods  comprise  ?     And  what  are  the  components 

of  meat? 

3.  To  what  is  the  tendency  to  excess  in  the  consmnption  of  animal 

food  due  ? 

4.  What  meats  are  least  digestible,  and  why? 

5.  What  is  to  be  said  of  poultry  ?     Game?     Fish? 

6.  Why  should  partially  decomposed  meat  be  avoided  ? 

7.  What  are  the  objects  of  cooking  meat? 

8.  What  is  considered  the  "  model"  food,  and  why  is  it  so  called? 

9.  How  should  milk  be  protected  from  impurities  ? 

10.  Why  are  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey  useful  ? 

11.  What  is  said  of  butter  and  its  substitutes? 

12.  What  is  to  be  said  of  cheese ?    Eggs? 

13.  What  do  vegetable  foods  include,  and  what  cereal  grains  are  most 

used? 

14.  What  is  to  be  said  of  wheat  ?    Barley  ?    Eye  ?    Oatmeal  ?     Corn  ? 

Rice? 

15.  How  may  the  cereals  be  prepared  for  eating,  and  what  is  their 

structure  ? 

16.  Which  is  the  best  flour  for  family  use? 

17.  What  kinds  of  flour  are  used  for  bread,  and  how  is  it  raised  ? 

18.  Why  are  potatoes  especially  commended? 

19.  Why  should  other  vegetables  be  used?. 

20.  What  is  to  be  said  of  peas,  beans,  and  lentils  ? 

21.  Why  are  fruits  esteemed,  when  is  the  best  time  to  eat  them,  and 

why  should  caution  be  observed  when  eating  small  seeded 
fruits  ? 

22.  What  are  condiments,  and  how  should  they  be  used? 

23.  How  may  drinks  be  divided?     What  is  to  be  said  of  water  and  of 

its  different  kinds,  and  how  may  it  be  jjurified  ? 

24.  What  benefit   is   derived   from   tea?      Coffee?      Chocolate   and 


cocoa 


25.   What  is  said  of  the  use  and  abuse  of  alcoholic  drinks ;  of  tobacco 
and  other  stimulants  and  narcotics  ? 


ANALYSIS. 


151 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE    TENTH   CHAPTER. 


FOODS. 


I.  Animal 


Flesh,  etc. 


Of  Quadrupeds. 
"  Poultry. 
"  Game. 
"  Fish. 


Milk  and  its  products,  —  Butter,  cheese,  etc. 

I  Eggs. 


r  Cereals. 
II.  Vegetable  .  .  .  ^  Garden  produce. 
t  Fruits. 

III.  Mineral Water  and  salts. 

'  Condiments. 

IV.  Miscellaneous   - 


(  Water  1  Ordinary, 
r  Natural    T^'^^^M  Mineral. 
(  Milk. 


Drinks . 


f  Coffee. 
^  Artificial  «j  Tea. 

[  Chocolate,  etc. 


ALCOHOLIC    AND    OTHER    STIMULANTS. 


152 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


Fig.  47. 

Front  view  of  the  organs  of  circulation.  —  Veins,  black;;  arteries,  with  transverse 
lines.  Parts  on  the  right  side  of  figure  are  removed  to  show  some  of  the  deep 
vessels,  while  the  right  side  shows  superficial  vessels. 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE    CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

225.  The  blood,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  principal  form 
which  the  nutritive  constituents  of  food  take  after  diges- 
tion. It  flows  as  pure  blood  in  one  set  of  currents,  from 
the  heart  to  every  cell  and  tissue  for  their  nourishment, 
and  returns  in  another  set  of  currents  to  the  heart  laden 
with  waste  products,  which  are  expelled  from  the  body 
through  the  lungs  and  other  excretory  organs.  This  flow 
of  the  blood  to  and  from  the  various  parts  of  the  body  is 
the  circulation^  and  the  organs  through  which  it  is  pro- 
pelled are  the  organs  of  circulation.  These  organs  are  the 
heart  and  the  blood-vessels,  the  latter  consisting  of  the 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins. 

226.  The  heart  is  a  hollow,  muscular,  pear-shaped 
organ,  about  the  size  of  the  clenched  fist.  It  is  situated 
obliquely  in  the  thoracic  cavity,  between  the  two  lungs, 
chiefly  on  the  left  side  of  the  body.  Its  lower  pointed  end, 
or  apex,  strikes  against  the  walls  of  the  thorax,  between 
the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs,  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  breast 
bone.  At  this  point  we  can  best  feel  the  impulse  of  the 
organ.^  The  broadened  upper  end,  called  the  base,  is 
about  on  a  level  with  the  middle  of  the  breast  bone,  near 
its  junction  with  the  cartilages  of  the  third  ribs.     Owing 

1  The  place  and  extent  of  the  heart's  impulse  vary  a  little  with  the  position 
of  the  body,  and  the  motions  of  breathing.  The  length  of  the  heart  is  about 
five  inches;  its  weight  in  men  is  about  10  or  12  ounces,  in  women  8  or  10. 


154 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


to  its  surroundings  this  end  of  the  heart  has  comparatively 
little  motion.  A  portion  of  the  right  and  lower  border  of 
the  heart  rests  upon  the  diaphragm,  and  is  upon  the  right 
side  of  the  "  median  line  "  of  the  body.^  The  left  border 
is  entirely  upon  the  left  of  this  line.     (Fig.  47.) 


Fig.  48. 
Heart,  front  view. —  1,  right  ventricle;  2,  left  ventricle ;  3  and  4,  right  auricle ;  5 
and  6,   left  auricle;    7,   pulmonary  artery;    8,  the  aorta;  9,  superior  vena 
cava;  10  and  11,  front  coronary  artery  and  vein  which  in  part  control  the 
blood-supply  of  the  substance  of  the  heart;  12,  lymphatic  vessels. 


1  "  A  vertical  line  supposed  to  divide  a  body  longitudinally  into  two  equal 
parts,  the  one  right,  the  other  left." 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD. — LYMPH.  155 

227.  The  whole  organ,  with  about  two  inches  of  the 
great  blood-vessels  which  arise  from  it,  is  enveloped  in  a 
fibrous  sac  known  as  the  pericardium}  This  sac  is  lined 
with  a  smooth,  glistening  membrane,  which  secretes  a 
lubricating  fluid  called  serum^  thus  permitting  the  heart 
to  move  freely  and  without  friction.     The  interior  of  the 


Fig.  49. 

Representing  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  and  the  blood-vessels  opening  into  and 
out  of  them.  The  ventricles  are  separated  in  the  cut  to  show  the  commence- 
ment of  the  aorta.    The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood-currents. 

heart  is  also  lined  with  a  smooth,  serous  membrane,  called 
tlie  endocardium,^  which  is  similar  to  and  continuous  with 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  blood-vessels. 

228.    The   heart   is   divided    by   muscular   walls   into 
four  compartments  or  cavities,  the  two  upper  ones  called 


1  Derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  "  around  the  heart.' 

2  Derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  **  within  the  heart.' 


156  THE   CIKCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

auricles,^  and  the  two  lower,  ventricles.^  The  first  two 
have  veins  which  open  into  them,  the  last  have  arteries 
which  arise  from  them.  The  auricles  receive  the  blood 
coming  into  them  through  the  veins,  and  when  full  simul- 
taneously contract  and  force  it  into  their  respective  ven- 
tricles, through  openings  (one  between  each  auricle  and 
ventricle),  which  are  known  as  the  auriculo-ventricular 
openings.  The  ventricles  then  simultaneously  contract 
and  expel  the  blood  into  the  arteries.    (Fig.  49.) 

The  openings  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles,  and 
those  between  the  ventricles  and  the  arteries  which  con- 
nect with  them,  are  guarded  by  little  doors  or  valves 
composed  of  delicate  but  strong  fibrous  tissue.  These 
open  to  allow  the  blood  to  pass  onward  in  its  natural 
course,  and  then  close,  thus  preventing  the  blood  from 
flowing  back,  ^.6.,  regurgitating.^ 

The  cavities  upon  the  right  side  of  the  heart  are  called, 
respectively,  the  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle,  and  those 
upon  the  left  side,  the  left  auricle  and  left  ventricle.* 
The  cavities  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart  are  resj^ectively 
smaller  than  those  of  the  right,  but  their  walls  are  stronger. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  the  left  ventricle,  whose  function 
it  is  to  send  blood  through  the  entire  body.     (Fig.  50.) 

1  "  Little  ears  "  (Latin),  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  their  resemblance  to  a 
dog's  ears. 

2  Literally,  the  diminutive  of  stomach.  The  appellation  is  old,  and  is  used 
by  Cicero. 

3  The  valves  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles  are  operated  by  slender 
but  powerful  muscles  within  the  ventricles.  The  tendons  of  these  muscles 
attached  to  the  valves  are  known  as  the  "chordae  tendinae,"  or  tendinous 
cords.  (Fig.  50.)  The  valves  between  the  left  auricle  and  ventricle  are  known 
as  the  "  mitral,"  from  a  supposed  resemblance,  when  they  are  open,  to  a  mitre. 
Between  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle  are  the  "  tricuspid"  valves,  i.e.,  hav- 
ing three  points.  Between  the  ventricles  and  the  arteries  are  the  * '  semilunar  " 
valves,  so  called  from  their  shape. 

4  Sometimes  the  heart  is  considered  as  a  double  organ,  the  right  side,  trans- 
mitting venous  blood,  is  spoken  of  as  the  right  heart,  and  the  left  side, 
transmitting  arterial  blood,  as  the  left  heart.  » 


THE  CIECULATION. — BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  157 

229.  The  movements  of  the  blood  will  probably  be  best 
understood  if  we  follow  it  from  point  to  point  in  its 
circuit. 

In  the  first  place  the  venous  or  impure  blood,  collected 
by  the  smaller  veins  from  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  is 
poured  into  two  great  veins  which  open  into  the  right 
auricle.^  When  the  auricle  is  dilated  and  filled  to  its  nor- 
mal limit,  its  walls  contract  and  expel  the  blood  through 


DV — I 


AV-- 


-LV 


Fig.  50. 
The  heart  and  some  of  its  vessels ;  the  ventricles  are  laid  open  to  show  their 
structure.  —  A,  aorta;  P  A,  pulmonary  artery;  P  V,  pulmonary  veins  of  left 
auricle;  L  A,  left  auricle;  D  V,  descending  vein,  or  superior  vena  cava; 
A  V,  ascending  vein,  or  inferior  vena  cava;  L  V,  left  ventricle;  R  V,  right 
ventricle.  The  relative  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the  ventricles  are  shown, 
also  the  muscle  columns  and  their  tendons,  together  with  the  curtain-like 
valves. 

the  right  ventricular  opening  into  the  right  ventricle. 
The  ventricle  thus  dilated  and  filled,  contracts,  and  expels 
its  contents  through  the  pulmonary/  artery  into  the  lungs^ 
where  the  blood  is  thoroughly  distributed  by  numerous 
"  capillary  "  or  hair-like  blood-vessels  among  the  air  cells, 
and  is  purified  by  exchanging  its  waste  products  for  the 

1  These  veins  are  called  "  the  superior  and  inferior  venae  cavae." 


158  THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

oxygen  of  the  air.  From  the  lungs  it  is  carried  as  pure 
blood  by  four  veins/  known  as  the  pulmonary  veins,  into 
the  left  auricle.  When  this  auricle  is  normally  dilated 
and  filled,  the  blood  is  forced  through  the  left  ventricular 
opening  into  the  left  ventricle.  This  ventricle,  when 
dilated  and  filled,  contracts  and  sends  the  blood  into  the 
aorta,'^  the  largest  artery  in  the  body,  and  through  its 
dividing  and  subdividing  branches  to  the  capillaries  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  tissues.  Having  parted  with 
much  of  its  life-giving  principles,  and  acquired  the  results 
of  decay  and  disintegration  in  the  tissues,  the  blood 
requires  to  be  re-purified,  and  commences  at  the  extremi- 
ties or  sources  of  the  venous  system  its  return  to  the  lungs. 
Passing  successively  through  the  enlarging  veins,  as 
though  it  were  a  river  system,  with  its  springs,  brooks, 
and  rivulets,  or  like  the  rootlets  enlarging  into  the  roots 
of  a  tree,  it  finally  again  reaches  the  right  auricle. 

230.  The  alternate  contractions  and  relaxatioyis  of  the 
auricles  and  veiitricles  cause  the  heart  to  roll  somewhat, 
and  to  elongate,  pushing  its  apex  against  the  chest  wall.^ 
These  movements  constitute  the  pulsations,  or  "throb- 
bing "  of  the  heart.  They  are  so  constant  that  the  organ 
seems  never  to  have  rest,  but  the  alternate  periods  of 
relaxation,  short  as  they  are,  afford  in  the  aggregate  very 
considerable  rest  to  the  busy  muscles  of  the  heart. 

231.  The  contraction  of  these  muscles,  those  of  the 
ventricles  especially,  and  the  closure  of  the  valves  of  the 
heart,  give  rise  to  what  are  known  as  heart  sounds, 
which  can  be  heard  by  placing  one's  ear  over  the  heart  of 

1  Two  from  each  lung. 

2  Sometimes  called  "  the  great  systemic  artery,"  as  it  distributes  blood  to  a 
large  part  of  the  system. 

3  These  contractions  and  dilatations  are  technically  designated  as  "systole  " 
and  "  diastole." 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD. — LYMPH.  159 

another,  and  in  contact  with  the  chest,  or  by  means  of  an 
instrument  called  the  stethoscope.  These  sounds  are 
termed  the  first  and  second  sounds,  and  changes  in  their 
rhythm,  intensity,  or  pitch  are  indications  to  the  physician 
of  the  character  of  any  disturbance  or  disease  in  the  heart. 

232.  The  pulsations  of  the  heart  are  involuntary.  There- 
fore, influences  which  operate  upon  the  nervous  system 
operate  also  upon  the  heart.^  Its  movements  are  decreased 
in  frequency  by  sorrow,  depression  of  spirits,  etc.,  and 
quickened  by  mental  excitement,  joy,  anger,  etc. ;  hence 
the  expressions,  ^'one  can  hear  his  heart  beat,"  or  "his 
heart  is  in  his  throat,"  or  "  it  beats  like  a  trip-hammer." 
The  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  the  quan- 
tity of  food,  the  age,  sex,  muscular  activity,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  individual,  also  affect  the  rapidity  of  the  heart's 
action.  At  birth  the  number  of  beats  is  normally  about 
140  per  minute,  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  120,  at  the  end 
of  the  second  year  110 ;  during  middle  life  it  varies  from 
70  to  80,  being  about  10  more  in  women  than  men,  and  in 
old  age  is  about  60.^ 

The  normal  frequency  of  the  heart's  action  varies  with 
the  temperament,  family  tendency,  and  the  individual's 
mode  of  living.  Of  Napoleon  I.  and  the  Duke  of  Well- 
ington it  is  said,  the  pulsations  were  but  40  per  minute. 


1  The  action  of  the  heart  is  controlled  in  health  hy  two  sets  of  nerves,  and 
so  regulated  that  the  exact  quantity  of  blood  required  at  any  time  is  received 
into  and  sent  out  of  the  organ.  The  first  set  (called  pneumogastrics) ,  "  act  as 
the  reins  act  on  a  horse  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  driver,"  while  the  second 
(called  sympathetic)  accelerate  the  action  of  the  heart. 

2  The  pulsations  are  increased  by  heat  and  diminished  by  cold.  In  babies 
they  are  readily  increased  or  diminished  by  apparently  slight  causes.  Thus, 
after  crying,  the  pulse  (as  the  pulsation  of  the  arteries  is  called),  rises  10  to 
20  beats,  and  is  lowered  the  same  amount  during  sleep.  After  a  meal  the  pulse 
of  an  adult  has  from  5  to  10  beats  more  per  minute  than  before ;  5  beats  more 
when  sitting  than  when  lying  down,  and  10  beats  more  when  standing  than 
when  sitting,  and  10  to  50  or  more  beats  when  in  motion  than  when  still. 


160  THE   CIRCULATION. — BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

In  some  persons,  especially  those  with  excitable,  nervous 
temperaments,  they  number  90  or  even  more.  Very  rapid 
action  tends  to  exhaust  the  heart ;  yet  the  vitality  of  the 
organ  is  remarkable.  In  warm-blooded  animals  and  in 
man  it  is  the  last  organ  to  cease  giving  signs  of  life,  and 
even  when  it  has  ceased  to  beat,  electricity  has  again 
aroused  its  action  and  restored  life.^  In  cold-blooded 
animals,  such  as  the  frog  and  snake,  whose  heart-action  is 
comparatively  slow,  the  heart  will  continue  to  throb  after 
the  animal  has  been  beheaded,  and  even  after  the  heart 
itself  has  been  removed  from  the  body. 

233.  The  arteries  ^  are  a  series  of  cylindrical,  firm,  but 
elastic  canals,  which  commence  with  the  aorta,  and  by 
divisions  and  subdivisions  convey  the  blood  to  all  the  vas- 
cular parts  of  the  body.  The  larger  arteries  are  composed 
of  three  coats :  first,  a  smooth,  delicate,  and  slightly  elas- 
tic inner  wall,  similar  to,  and  continuous  with,  the  endo- 
cardium, and  the  lining  of  the  veins  and  the  capillaries ; 
next,  a  middle  coat  composed  of  elastic  and  muscular 
tissue ;  and  lastly,  a  very  strong  outer  coat,  composed  of 
fibrous  and  elastic  tissue  with  some  muscular  fibres.^     As 

1  The  ancients  regarded  various  organs  of  the  body  as  seats  of  the  emotions. 
The  spleen  was  the  seat  of  anger  and  melancholy,  hence  the  term  splenetic; 
while  the  heart  was  the  seat  of  joy,  love,  harmony,  and  the  like.  The  words, 
"courage,"  "cordiality,"  "heart-felt,"  "hearty,"  "heartiness,"  etc.,  have 
their  derivation  in  this  idea. 

2  So  named  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  "  receptacle  of  air,"  because  the 
ancients  believed  that  these  blood-vessels  contained  air  only,  —  probably 
because  they  generally  found  them  empty  in  the  dead  body.  Arteries  do  not 
collapse  when  cut  as  veins  do.  After  death  their  contents  are  for  the  most 
part  emptied  into  the  veins  and  capillaries.  A  firm  tube  of  rubber  (whose  walls 
keep  the  canal  open,  even  when  the  tube  is  cut  across),  will  give  a  fair  idea  of 
what  an  artery  is;  while  a  tube,  with  thin,  flexible  walls,  represents  a  vein. 

3  The  elasticity  of  the  larger  arteries  will  be  best  appreciated  in  the  aorta 
of  an  ox  or  sheep.  Like  a  piece  of  india-rubber,  it  yields  when  stretched,  and 
immediately  thereafter  recovers  itself.  The  walls  of  the  arteries  are  nourished 
by  blood  conveyed  to  them  by  little  arteries  called  vam  vasorum.  Correspond- 
ing vessels  also  supply  the  heart. 


THE  CIRCULATION. — BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  161 

the  arteries  become  smaller  the  external  coat  disappears ; 

hence  the  very  small  arteries  (arterioles)  have   but  two 
coats.      In   the    capillaries   (which   are 

continuous  with  the  smaller  arteries  as  M^ 

well  as  with  the  commencing  rootlets  of  ^^(? 

the  veins)  the  middle  coat  also  disap-  ^^m^7 

pears,    and   the   thin,  delicate,   circular  ^5^^iw 

wall  that  remains  is  well  adapted  for  the  i^^^mh 

transudation  of  gases  and  fluids.  j^^B  Pr 

234.   The  smoothness  of  the  lining  wall  *T1B  || 

prevents  friction.     The  elasticity  of  the  ^Bj 

arteries  permits  them  to  yield  without  r-^T 

danger  of  bursting,  as  the  blood  is  thrown  a  portion  of  an  artery, 
into  them  with  each  stroke  of  the  heart,  phatics  and  lymphatic 
and  also  enables  them  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  various  movements  of  the  body. 
Their  contractility  affords  them  the  power  of  adapting 
themselves  to  the  variable  quantities  of  blood  which  they 
contain,  and  which  must  be  supplied  to  the  tissues  as 
required.  As  the  blood  is  sent  into  the  large  arteries 
from  the  heart,  the  flow  is  intermittent.  The  calibre  of 
the  arteries  as  they  divide  and  sub-divide  becomes  smaller 
and  smaller,  but  in  the  aggregate  that  calibre  is  greatly 
increased,  and,  owing  to  this  and  to  their  elasticity  and 
contractility,  as  the  blood  is  propelled  onwards,  the  pulsa- 
tions in  the  arteries  are  less  intermittent  as  the  arteries 
become  smaller,  and  finally,  in  the  capillaries,  the  blood 
current  is   uniform  and   constant,    but   slow.^      It   thus 


1  The  motion  of  the  blood  in  the  arteries  may  be  illustrated  by  connecting  a 
syringe,  representing  the  left  ventricle,  with  a  large  rubber  tube,  representing 
the  aorta,  which  is  connected  with  various  tubes  of  gradually  decreasing  size, 
representing  the  subdividing  arteries  and  the  capillaries.  The  water  is  injected 
into  the  large  tube  in  an  intermittent  and  forcible  current,  which  abates  in  the 
smaller  tubes  and  becomes  continuous  in  the  smallest. 


162  THE   CIKCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

becomes  well  adapted  to  furnish  to  each  cell  its  appro- 
priate nourishment,  and  to  abstract  from  each  its  waste 
products.^ 

235.  The  pulsations  of  the  aorta  and  its  branches 
constitute  the  pulse  or  wave  in  the  arteries.  This  is 
usually  felt  at  the  wrist,  but  may  be  felt  over  any  artery 
which  is  located  near  the  surface,  as  in  the  arteries  of  the 
upper  lip,  the  chin,  temples,  elbows,  and  inner  side  of  the 
ankles.  To  determine  the  character  of  the  pulse  more 
accurately  than  by  the  sense  of  touch  alone,  an  ingenious 
registering  instrument  called  the  sphygmograph  may  be 
attached  to  the  forearm,  and  by  means  of  a  lever  lightly 
resting  on  the  pulse,  there  will  be  registered  with  a  pencil 


Fig.   52. 
Portions  of  four  traces  taken  by  the  sphygmograph  in  diftereut  conditions  of  the  pulse. 

on  prepared  paper  the  character  of  the  pulsations.  The 
character  of  the  pulse  is  a  fair  indication  of  the  action  and 
strength  of  the  heart,  and  is  modified  or  altered  by  the 
same  means  that  affect  the  action  of  the  heart. 

236.  The  capillaries  permeate  the  vascular  organs  in 
meshes  of  network  variously  arranged,  and  bring  the 
blood  into  close  contact  with  the  tissues.^  In  reference 
to  their  function,  Dalton  says,  "The  nutritious  ingredi- 
ents of  the  blood  transude  through  their  walls,  and  are 
appropriated  by  the  tissues  beyond.  In  the  glandular 
organs  they  supply  the  substance  requisite  for  secretion  ; 
in  the  villi  of  the  intestine  they  take  up  the  elements  of 

1  It  is  estimated  that  the  blood  flows  360  times  faster  in  the  aorta  than  in 
the  capillaries. 

2  Capillaries  are  generally  about  3  oV^  of  an  i»ch  in  diameter. 


THE   CmCULATION.  —  BLOOD. 


LYMPH. 


163 


the  digested  food ;  in  the  lungs  they  absorb  oxygen  and 
exhale  carbonic  acid ;  in  the  kidneys  they  discharge  the 
products  of  destructive  assimilation  collected  from  other 
parts.  The  capillary  circulation  thus  furnishes  directly  or 
indirectly  the  materials  for  the  growth  and  renovation  of 


Fig.  53. 
Injected  cross-section  of  a  lobule  of  the  liver,  showing  the  capillary  network 
between  the  portal  and  hepatic  veins.  —  1,  section  of  in^ra-lobular  vein; 
2,  its  branches  collecting  blood  from  the  capillaries;  3,  i/i^er-lobular  branches 
of  the  portal  vein  connecting  with  the  capillary  network,  and  supplying  the 
lobule  with  blood  for  its  nourishment.  —  Magnified  60  diameters, 

the  entire  body."  This  circulation  is  ordinarily  studied 
in  a  tissue  which  is  transparent  and  vascular,  such  as  the 
Aveb  of  a  frog's  foot,  or  of  a  bat's  wing,  and  is  an  exceed- 
ingly beautiful  and  interesting  sight.^     Tissues   such   as 

1  "  We  see  the  great  arterial  rivers,  in  which  the  blood  flows  with  wonderful 
rapidity,  branching  and  subdividing  until  the  circulating  fluid  is  brought  to 
the  network  of  fine  capillaries,  where  the  corpuscles  dart  along  one  by  one. 
The  blood  is  then  collected  by  the  veins  and  carried  in  great  currents  to  the 
heart.  This  exhibition  to  the  student  of  Nature  is  of  inexpressible  grandeur ; 
and  our  admiration  is  not  diminished  when  we  come  to  study  the  phenomena 
in  detail.  ...  It  can  be  seen  how  the  arterioles  regulate  the  supply  of  blood 
to  the  tissues;  how  the  blood  distributes  itself  by  the  capillaries;  and  finally, 
having  performed  its  office,  how  it  is  collected  and  carried  off  by  the  veins."  — 
Text-hook  of  Physiology.    Flint. 


164 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


cartilage,  nails,  and  hair,  which  have  no  blood-vessels,  are 
nourished  by  imbibition. ^ 


5 


Fig.  54. 

A  diagram  of  the  capillary  circulation,  with  arteries  in  white,  veins  in  black.— 
T,  trachea,  arrows  representing  incoming  and  outgoing  air ;  D,  the  diaphragm ; 
A,  artery  (the  aorta) ;  V,  vein;  1,  capillary  circulation  of  head;  2,  vessels  of 
upper  extremities;  .3,  capillaries  of  the  lungs;  4,  of  the  stomach;  5,  of  the 
liver ;  6,  of  the  spleen ;  7,  of  the  pancreas ;  8,  of  a  portion  of  small  intestine ; 
9,  of  the  kidneys;  10,  vessels  of  lower  extremities. 


1  That  is,  **  drinking  in,"  or  "  absorption." 


THE   CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH.  165 

237.  The  capillaries  having  very  thin  and  somewhat 
elastic  walls,  readily  vary  in  size,  at  different  times,,  in 
response  to  any  exciting  cause.  They  are  largest,  when  a 
part  to  which  they  are  distributed  is  functionally  active. 
Emotion,  and  exposure  to  warmth,  dilate  the  small  arteries 
by  relaxing  their  muscular  fibres  ;  and  more  blood  at  such 
times  fills  the  capillaries  in  connection  with  them,  so  that 
the  parts  to  which  they  are  distributed  "  blush,"  or  become 
ruddy.  On  the  other  hand,  pallor  is  produced  by  con- 
tinued cold,  anger,  fear,  etc.,  which  cause  the  muscles  to 
contract,  and  the  amount  of  blood  in  the  small  arteries 
and  capillaries  to  be  diminished.^  So  numerous  are  the 
capillaries  that  their  entire  capacity  is  said  to  be  "  from 
five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  times  that  of  the  arteries." 
Their  extensive  distribution  may  be  appreciated  when  we 
consider  that  the  slightest  cut  upon  any  part  of  the  skin 
or  mucous  membrane,  which  is  sufficient  to  induce  bleed- 
ing, must  cut  across  many  capillaries.  They  are  most 
numerous  wherever  the  nutritive  processes  are  most  active, 
as  in  the  lungs  and  glands,  and  in  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  small  intestine,  and,  during  the  functional  activity 
of  these  parts,  may  be  said  to  bathe  them  in  blood. 

238.  After  the  blood  has  parted  with  nutriment  to  the 
tissues,  and  absorbed  waste  products  from  them,  it  passes  on 
from  the  capillaries  into  larger  channels  called  small  veins 
or  veinlets,  and  then  into  still  larger  ones  known  as  veins.^ 

1  Blood  carried  to  a  part  for  a  length  of  time,  in  larger  quantity  than  is 
necessary  for  its  nourishment,  is  liable  to  cause  inflammation  and  even  death 
of  the  part.  When  the  supply  of  blood  is  for  a  lengthened  period  much 
smaller  than  is  demanded,  failure  in  nutrition  and  even  death  of  the  part  may 
result;  or  if  a  part  has  been  long  contracted,  as  by  frost-bite,  and  blood  is  too 
suddenly  brought  into  it,  as  by  heat,  inflammation  and  death  of  the  part  may 
ensue. 

2  Generally,  in  the  case  of  large  blood-vessels,  arteries  and  veins  (and  some- 
times nerves)  accompany  each  other  in  one  common  sheath. 


166 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


Other  waste  products  not  so  taken  up  are  carried  into  the 
blood  by  another  set  of  vessels,  called  the  lymphatics,  to 
be  hereafter  described. 

Veins,  like  arteries,  are  composed  of  three  coats,  but 
they  contain  a  smaller  quantity  of  muscular  and  elastic 
fibres,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  firm  connective  tissue. 
They  are  consequently  less  elastic  and  contractile,  more 
flaccid  and  compressible,  but  "have 
equal  if  not  superior  capacity  for  resist- 
ance to  pressure."  They  are  further- 
more distinguished  in  the  limbs  and 
external  parts  of  the  head  and  neck,  by 
being  provided  with  valves  so  arranged 
that  their  closure  prevents  a  backward 
flow  of  blood.  The  position  of  these 
valves  may  be  seen  in  the  little  promi- 
nences that  result  in  the  course  of  the 
superficial  veins  if  we  tie  a  cord  around 
the  wrist  or  arm. 


Fig.  55. 
A  portion  of  a  vein,  with 
its  branches  laid  open, 
showing  the  valves. 


239.  The  capacity  of  the  venous  system  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  arterial,  owing  to  its  numerous  intercommuni- 
cations. If  an  obstruction  occurs  in  a  vein,  the  blood 
can  be  more  readily  diverted  therefore  into  one  or  more 
branches  than  is  the  case  with  the  arteries,  but  the 
encircling  of  an  entire  limb  with  a  tight  band  would 
obstruct  the  circulation  in  all  the  vessels  of  that  region, 
and  induce  swelling  below  the  band. 


240.  The  force  and  rapidity  of  the  circulation  are  very 
great,  but  differ  widely  in  the  various  sets  of  vessels  and 
in  the  different  organs,  whether  at  rest  or  during  func- 
tional activity ;  but  the  time  required  for  the  passage  of 
the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  vascular  tissues  and  back  is 


THE   CIRCULATION. — BLOOD. — LYMPH.  167 

said  by  Dalton  to  be  ''  not  far  from  twenty  seconds."  ^  The 
flow  of  blood  from  the  heart  into  the  arteries,  and  through 
the  capillaries,  is  effected  by  the  powerful  contractions  of 
the  heart  aided  by  the  contractility  and  elasticity  of  the 
arteries,  and  in  the  case  of  the  capillaries,  also  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  surrounding  tissues.  So  great  is  the  force 
exerted,  that  if  an  artery  be  cut  across,  the  blood  spirts  to 
a  distance  of  several  feet. 

In  health,  both  arteries  and  veins  readily  withstand  the 
force  of  the  circulation,  but,  when  weakened  by  age,  injury, 
or  disease,  they  may  burst  under  unusual  exertion,  such  as 
fast  walking  or  running,  the  lifting  of  heavy  weights,  or 
even  by  a  sudden  change  of  position,  as  in  the  quick  rising 
from  a  recumbent  posture.  If  the  vessels  of  the  brain  give 
way,  paralysis  or  death  may  occur  from  the  pressure  of  the 
escaped  blood  upon  the  brain.  This  condition  is  known 
as  apoplexy.  So  rapid  is  the  circulation  that,  on  looking 
at  the  flow  of  blood  in  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot  for  the  first 
time,  it  is  difficult  even  to  see  the  blood  globules. 

241.  The  flow  of  blood  through  the  veins  is  more  rapid 
than  that  through  the  capillaries,  but  considerably  slower 
than  the  arterial  current.  It  is  effected  by  the  pressure 
from  the  capillary  circulation,  by  the  contraction  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  through  which  the  veins  pass,  and  by 
the  act  of  inspiration,  whereby  the  chest  is  expanded. 
This  expansion  not  only  tends  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs, 
but  also  blood  from  the  veins.^ 

1  Dalton  estimates  that  the  average  rapidity  of  an  arterial  current  is  12 
inches  per  second,  of  a  venous  current  8  inches  per  second,  and  the  rate 
through  the  capillaries  is  rather  less  than  2  j  of  an  inch  per  second. 

2  If  a  vein,  especially  in  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  be  wounded,  and  con- 
siderable air  enters  the  blood,  death  is  likely  to  result.  "  The  air  finds  its  way 
to  the  right  ventricle,  is  mixed  with  the  blood  in  the  form  of  minute  bubbles, 
and  is  carried  into  the  pulmonary  artery ;  once  in  this  vessel  it  is  impossible 
for  it  to  pass  through  tlie  capillaries  of  the  lungs,  and  death  by  suffocation 
is  the  inevitable  result."  —  Flint. 


168  THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

242.  The  blood  is  eminently  the  "  vital  fluid,"  for  it  is 
that  constituent  of  the  body  which  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly affords  nourishment  and  life  to  all  the  other  con- 
stituents, whether  solid  or  fluid.  If  from  any  cause  much 
blood  is  lost,  great  weakness  follows,  and  if  the  flow  is  not 
checked,  death  results.^  On  the  other  hand,  if  fresh  blood 
from  a  living  person  or  animal  be  injected  into  the  veins 
of  an  individual  much  prostrated,  or  even  apparently  dead, 
especially  if  his  condition  be  the  result  of  loss  of  blood, 
he  often  may  be  revived.  This  operation  is  known  as  the 
transfusion  of  hlood? 

243.  To  the  eye  the  blood  seems  to  be  merely  a  homo- 
geneous red,  scarlet,  or  dark-blue  liquid,  according  as  it  is 
drawn  from  the  capillaries,  arteries,  or  veins.  It  has  a  salty 
taste,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  it  is  capable  of  stain- 
ing a  large  amount  of  water.  As  shown  by  a  microscopic 
examination,  it  consists  of  two  portions,  the  liquor  san- 
guinis or  plasma,  and  the  globules.  The  first  is  an  alka- 
line, transparent,  and  nearly  colorless  fluid,  in  which  the 
blood  globules,  corpuscles,  cells,  or  disks  (as  they  are 
variously  called),  swim.     It  is  composed  of  water  and 

1  From  1545  to  1586  several  persons  described  portions  of  the  circulatory 
apparatus,  and  their  function.  In  1602  Harvey  began  his  investigations  upon 
living  animals,  and  in  1616  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  His 
description  of  the  movements  of  the  heart  are  forcible,  clear,  and  accurate. 
Of  the  heart,  he  says  "  by  an  admirable  adjustment  all  the  internal  surfaces 
are  drawn  together,  as  if  with  cords,  and  so  is  the  charge  of  blood  expelled 
with  force."  Like  other  investigators  in  the  same  field,  Harvey  was  subjected 
to  much  persecution. 

2  The  operation  originated  in  the  17th  century,  and  much  was  expected 
from  its  use;  some  believing  that  old  people  could  be  rejuvenated  by  using  the 
blood  of  the  young;  but,  after  a  number  of  deaths  had  resulted,  it  fell  into  dis- 
repute. The  operation  has  been  revived  within  the  last  few  years,  and,  owing 
to  improved  surgical  appliances,  and  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
excellent  results  have  been  obtained ;  three  or  four  ounces  only  of  blood  have 
been  found  to  be  sufficient  at  any  one  time.  Warm  milk  of  cows  has  been 
successfully  used  instead  of  blood. 


THE  CIRCULATION. — BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  169 

fatty  matters,  and  of  albuminous  matters  and  salts  in 
solution,  with  some  crystallizable  substances  of  organic 
origin,  and  forms  "  about  60  per  cent  by  volume  of  the 
entire  mass  "  of  the  blood.^ 

244.  Blood  globules  are  of  two  kinds,  the  red  and  the 
white.  The  red  are  smaller  than  the  white  (s^Vrr  of  an 
inch  in  diameter),  and  much  more  numerous,  there  being 
about  300  to  every  white  corpuscle.  So  numerous  are 
they,  that  in  every  direction,  in  the  thinest  film  of  blood 
under  the  microscope,  they  touch  or  even  overlap  each 


Fig.  56. 

Blood  globules.  —  M,  of  man;  F,  of  the  frog;  W  S,  of  the  water  ealamander; 
S,  of  a  shark;  D,  of  the  dove;  C,  of  the  camel. 

other,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  red  color  is  due  to 
the  globules  en  masse^  for,  if  viewed  separately  by  trans- 
mitted light,  they  are  of  a  light  amber  color.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  there  are  about  five  million  red 
corpuscles  in  a  very  small  drop  (a  cubic  millimetre)  of 
blood.  In  form  they  are  circular,  with  flattened  sides, 
and  under  the  microscope  are  seen  to  arrange  themselves 

1  The  albuminous  matters  are  albumen,  paraglobuline,  and  fibrinogen.  "  The 
salts  are  principally  sodium  and  potassium  chlorides,  phosphates,  and  sulph- 
ates, together  with  lime  and  magnesium  phosphates.'' 


170  THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

in  rows,  adhering  together  side  by  side  like  a  roll  of  coins. 
They  are  of  nearly  fluid  consistency  and  very  elastic,  and 
are  easily  bent  or  distorted,  to  enable  them  to  pass  through 
the  smallest  blood-vessels.  Their  most  important  ingre- 
dient is  hemoglobine}  This  substance  has  a  strong  affinity 
for  oxygen,^  and  unites  with  it;  but  the  tissues  which 
have  a  stronger  affinity  absorb  a  large  part  of  the  oxygen 
in  combination  with  the  coloring  matter,  and  replace  it 
with  carbonic  acid.  It  is  on  account,  therefore,  of  the 
life-giving  oxygen  thus  carried  by  the  red  globules,  that 
they  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  little  boats  laden  with 
precious  freight,"  which  are  in  health  dispatched  at  the 
right  time,  to  the  right  place,  in  the  right  quantity. 

The  red  globules  of  the  blood  of  all  vertebrate  animals 
contain  a  coloring  matter  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
that  of  man,  but  differ  from  the  globules  of  human  blood 
as  to  form,  size,  and  structure.^  The  detection  of  this  dif- 
ference is  sometimes  of  importance  in  courts  of  law  in  the 
decision  of  questions  relating  to  the  stains  upon  murder- 
ous weapons,  or  upon  garments,  floors,  etc. 

245.  The  white  globules  are  supposed  to  change  ultim- 
ately into  red  ones.  They  are  larger  than  the  latter  (about 
Y^-^  of  an  inch  in  diameter),  have  a  spherical  form,  and 
adhere  more  readily  than  do  the  red  globules  to  surfaces 

1  "  The  ultimate  elements  of  liemoglobine  are  carbon,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  sul- 
phur, and  iron;  the  last  of  these  probably  being  the  cause  of  the  red  color."  — 
Quain's  Bict.  of  Medicine. 

2  This  gas  chiefly  finds  its  way  into  the  blood  through  the  air  breathed  in 
by  the  lungs. 

3  In  the  warm-blooded  quadrupeds  the  structure  is  the  same  as  in  man.  The 
globules  have  the  same  disk-like  shape,  except  in  the  camel  family,  where  the 
disks  are  oval.  The  smallest  globules  are  those  of  the  Java  musk  deer;  the 
largest,  those  of  the  elephant;  though  their  size  does  not  always  correspond 
with  that  of  the  animal.  In  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  with  but  few  excep- 
tions, they  are  oval  and  have  a  nucleus.  The  coloring  matter  of  blood  in  sus- 
pected stains,  is  frequently  ascertained  by  a  spectroscopic  examination. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  171 

with  which  they  may  come  in  contact.^  Characteristic  of 
the  white  globules  are  what  are  known  as  the  "amoeboid 
movements,"  so  named  from  their  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  Amoeba^  an  animalcule  living  in  fresh-water  ponds  or 
ditches.  These  movements  consist  in  the  alternate  protru- 
sion and  retraction  of  various  portions  of  the  globules. 
By  this  mechanism  the  white  globules  move  from  place  to 
place  when  the  blood  current  is  considerably  slackened,  and 
also  "  migrate,"  i.e.^  escape  from  the  capillaries  into  the 
surrounding  tissues.  Powers  says  of  this  "migration" 
or  diajpedesis,  as  it  is  technically  called,  "  under  certain 
circumstances,  both  white  and  red  corpuscles  may  escape 
from  the  vessels,  and  pass  or  wander  into  the  adjoining 
lymphatics.  The  escape  of  the  white  corpuscles  appears 
to  occur  normally,  whilst  the  escape  of  the  red  only  occurs 
when  the  pressure  of  the  blood  against  the  walls  of  the 
capillaries  is  much  increased,  or  when  there  is  retardation 
of  the  blood  current,  as  in  inflammation.  In  the  case  of 
the  white  corpuscles,  the  attraction  between  the  corpuscle 
and  the  capillary  wall  seems  to  be  increased,  the  corpuscle 
begins  to  bore  its  way  through  the  wall,  assumes  an  hour- 
glass form,  part  being  within  and  part  without  the  lumen 
of  the  vessel,  and  it  Anally  escapes  altogether  into  the 
adjoining  tissues."  How  far  the  nutritive  processes  are 
influenced  by  the  migration  of  blood  corpuscles  is  not 
definitely  known.^ 

246.  Blood  exposed  to  atmospheric  air  coagulates  or 
clots  spontaneously.  This  property  is  peculiar  to  blood. 
If  it  were  not  for  this  coagulation  we  should  be  liable  to 

1  The  term  leucocytes  is  applied  sometimes  to  the  white  corpuscles.  These 
corpuscles  are  not  peculiar  to  blood,  hut  are  found  in  lymph,  chyle,  and  other 
fluids. 

2  Diapedesis  was  first  described  about  184(5,  but  has  been  fully  studied  only 
within  the  last  few  years. 


172  THE   CIRCULATION. — BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 

bleed  to  death  from  even  a  slight  cut.^  In  most  of  the 
warm-blooded  animals  coagulation  is  more  prompt  and 
thorough  than  in  man,  so  that  there  may  be  extensive 
injury  to  blood-vessels  without  fatal  results  to  the  helpless 
animals.  But  man  is  able,  by  pressure  for  a  time  upon  a 
bleeding  vessel,  or  by  tying  the  two  cut  ends  (z.e.,  ligatur- 
ing) to  cause  the  coagulation,  and  so  lessen  the  danger 
from  extensive  hemorrhage.  Seldom  does  the  blood  clot 
in  the  body,  unless  the  circulation  is  impeded  or  arrested, 
and  the  inner  coat  of  a  vessel  is  roughened  by  disease,  or 
otherwise  injured.  A  clot  formed  in  a  vessel  may  inter- 
rupt the  blood  supply  to  a  part  of  the  body,  and  cause  the 
death  of  that  part,  or  it  may  be  sent  in  the  blood  current 
to  the  brain,  and  cause  paralysis  of  a  portion  of  the  body, 
or  death  of  the  entire  body.  A  "  bruise-spot "  is  the  dis- 
coloration produced  by  blood  escaping  from  injured  capil- 
laries, and  its  coagulation  in  or  under  the  skin.  The  rap- 
idity with  which  it  naturally  disappears  depends  upon  the 
severity  of  the  injury,  the  relative  thickness  of  the  skin, 
the  vascularity  of  the  part  injured,  and  upon  the  health  of 
the  individual.  When  blood  is  poor  and  thin,  as  in  scurvy 
and  other  blood  diseases,  it  flows  readily  from  wounds, 
or  from  the  impoverished  tissues,  producing  dangerous 
hemorrhages  and  many  "bruised  spots."  The  drawing 
of  a  tooth,  or  a  pin's  scratch  in  such  persons,  is  liable  to 
result  in  severe  bleeding. 

1  The  clotting  of  blood  may  be  studied  in  animal's  blood  contained  in  a 
deep  glass  dish.  The  upper  portion  begins  to  harden  first,  and  after  a  time  the 
whole  mass  is  semi-solid.  Later  on  the  clot  forms  and  lies  in  the  centre  of  a 
light  yellow  fluid.  This  firm  clot  contains  globules,  fibrin,  and  most  of  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  blood,  while  the  fluid  known  as  "  serum "  contains 
water,  salts,  and  a  little  coloring  matter.  Fibrin  formed  from  the  fibrinogen 
of  the  blood  may  be  seen  in  the  fibrous  filaments  remaining  after  thoroughly 
washing  a  clot  of  blood,  or  in  the  fine  threads  which  cling  to  a  bundle  of  twigs, 
with  which  fresh  blood  has  been  thoroughly  beaten  for  a  time.  Such  blood 
remains  uncoagulable,  and  is  said  to  be  defibrinated. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  173 

247.  The  entire  quantity  of  blood  of  an  individual  is 
about  ten  per  cent  of  his  bodily  weight.  Of  this  quantity 
about  one-fourth  is  distributed  to  the  heart,  lungs,  large 
arteries,  and  veins,  one-fourth  to  the  liver,  one-fourth  to 
the  muscles,  and  the  remaining  fourth  to  the  remaining 
organs  and  tissues.  The  brain  utilizes  one-fifth  of  the 
entire  quantity  of  blood. 

248.  Probably  there  is  more  variation  in  individuals 
as  to  the  quality  of  blood  than  there  is  as  to  the  quantity. 
The  old  expressions,  "  rich  blood,"  "  poor  blood,"  "  blood 
will  tell,"  etc.,  have  much  of  truth  in  them  in  a  physiolog- 
ical sense,  for  so-called  "  blood  diseases  "  are  often  handed 
down  from  one  generation  to  another,  and  blood  may 
become  so  poor  (thin  and  watery)  from  inattention  to 
hygienic  requirements  that  health  is  impossible.^  On  the 
other  hand,  pallor  of  countenance  will  disappear,  and 
strength  and  energy  return  to  the  feeble  when  the  poor 
blood  has  been  enriched  by  good  food,  and  air,  and  by 
warmth,  cleanliness,  and  other  hygienic  measures. 

249.  In  addition  to  the  blood  there  is  another  fluid 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  body.  This  is  the 
lymph,  a  liquid  closely  resembling  in  composition  the 
blood  plasma,  and  containing  rounded  corpuscles  similar 
in  appearance  to  the  white  globules  of  the  blood,  which 
are  called  "lymph  globules."  The  lymph  represents 
some  of  the  ingredients  of  the  blood  which  have  traversed 
the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  and  some  of  the  products  of 
disintegration,  which,  after  renovation  in  the  lymphatic 
system,  enter  the  blood  and  are  again  serviceable  in  the 

1  Living  for  a  long  time  in  an  impure  atmosphere  impoverishes  the  blood. 
Sometimes  poor  blood,  as  seen  escaping  from  an  injured  vessel,»is  of  a  pale 
yellow  color  ;  not  only  are  the  red  globules  deficient  in  oxygen,  but  their 
number  is  materially  decreased. 


174 


THE  CIRCULATIOX. 


BLOOD. 


LYMPH. 


economy.  The  thin,  delicate  vessels  in  which  the  lymph 
currents  move  are  the  lymphatics.'^  TKese  vessels  (so  fine 
that  they  cannot  be  readily  seen  until  injected  with  quick- 
silver) begin  as   networks,  or  as    tubes  with  free  blind 


V  ^n' 


Fig.  57. 
Lymphatic  vessels  of  a  papilla  of  the  palm  of  the  hand,  greatly  magnified. 

extremities,  in  the  interspaces  of  the  connective  tissue,  or 
of  the  capillar}^  blood- vessels.^  They  are  most  abundant 
in  organs  well  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  such  as  the 


1  About  the  year  IGOO  the  thoracic  duct  was  discovered.  In  1622  the  lacteals, 
but  until  1649  they  were  sujjposed  to  empty  into  the  liver;  in  that  year  (1649) 
the  receptacle  for  chyle  was  discovered,  and  the  fact  that  chyle  was  carried  into 
it,  and  from  thence  into  the  venous  system.  It  was  not  until  1650  that  the 
other  absorbent  vessels,  i.e.,  lymphatics,  were  discovered,  first  in  the  liver, 
and  then  in  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 

2  It  is  now  supposed  that  certain  serous  cavities,  such  as  the  pleural  and 
peritoneal,  which  were  formerly  considered  as  dosed  cavities,  communicate  by 
small  openings  with  the  lymphatics. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


175 


glandular  organs,  the  mucous  membrane,  and  the  skin,  — 
particularly  that  of  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  palms  of 
the  hands,  —  and  are  absent  in  the  non-vascular  tissues.^ 

250.  The  lymphatic  capillaries,  after  leaving  the  vari- 
ous tissues,  converge,  the  tubes  becoming  larger  as  they 
approach  the  heart.  Those  from  the  right  side  of  the 
head  and  neck,  and  the  right  upper 
extremity,  form  the  right  lymphatic 
duct,  which  opens  into  the  venous 
system  at  the  junction  of  the  right 
subclavian  vein  with  the  right  inter- 
nal jugular  vein.  The  lymphatics  of 
the  lower  extremities  enter  the  abdom- 
inal cavity,  and  with  the  abdominal 
lymphatics  (including  the  lacteals, 
with  their  contents  the  chyle),  form 
the  commencement  of  the  thoracic 
duct.  At  the  base  of  the  neck, 
before  this  duct  empties  into  the  left 
subclavian  vein,  at  its  junction  with 
the  left  internal  jugular,  it  is  joined 
by  the  lymphatics  from  the  left  side 
of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  left 
upper  extremity.  Thus  the  lymph  is 
mingled  with  the  venous  blood  before 
its  arrival  at  the  right  side  of  the 
heart.2 


251.   In   the    course   of  the   lym- 
phatics everywhere  in  the  body  are 


Fig.  58. 
Superficial  lymphatics  of  the 
hand  and  forearm.  —  G, 
lymphatic  gland. 


1  Those  instances  related  of  blood-poisoning,  by  mere  contact  of  poisonous 
material  with  the  tender  parts  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane,  are  probably 
due  to  the  absorption  of  the  poison  by  the  lymphatics. 

2  According  to  Dalton,  about  six  pounds  of  lymph  (i.e.  including  chyle)  is 
poured  into  the  blood  every  24  hours. 


176 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH. 


numerous  glands,  called  lymphatic  glands}  Their  func- 
tion, it  is  supposed,  is  a  renovating  or  elaborating  one. 
In  them  the  lymph  globules  are  believed  chiefly  to  origi- 
nate.    Certain  it  is,  that  when  in  large  numbers  they  are 


LymR 


RIJ  -  - 
RSV-  - 


-  -  -  Lym  L 


RC 


Lym  L  Ex 


Lym  L  Ex 


Fig,  59.  —  Diagram, 

Lym  R,  lymphatics  of  right  side  of  head  and  necli ;  Lym  L,  lymphatics  of  left 
Bide  of  head  and  neck;  RIJ,  right  internal  jugular  vein;  RSV,  right  sub- 
clavian vein;  LSV,  left  subclavian  vein ;  TD,  thoracic  duct;  RC,  receptacle 
of  the  chyle;  Lac,  lacteals;  Lym  L  Ex,  lymphatics  of  lower  extremities. 


1  About  700,  These  glands  are  not  infrequently  enlarged;  for  instance, 
upon  the  head,  or  in  the  neck,  from  some  irritation  of  the  skin,  from  a  sore 
throat,  etc.,  and  can  then  he  i-eadily  felt. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD.  —  LYMPH.  177 

hardened  or  otherwise  altered,  health  fails,  and  the  person 
grows  thin,  though  the  food  may  be  suitable  in  quality 
and  abundant  in  quantity  .^ 

252.  Intimately  connected  with  the  circulation  of  blood 
and  the  conveyance  of  lymph  are  the  operations  of  secre- 
tion, transudation,  and  absorption,  which  form  a  large  part 
of  the  processes  of  nutrition.  Nutritive  fluids  and  gases 
enter  the  blood,  and  by  exosmosis  and  endosmosis,  and  by 
re-absorption,  produce  the  secretions  of  the  various  organs, 
and  the  materials  of  the  tissues.  The  "  natural  constitu- 
tion of  the  parts,  though  constantly  changing,  is  maintained 
in  its  normal  condition,  through  the  movement  and  reno- 
vation of  the  circulating  fluids." 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  State  what  is  meant  by  the  circulation,  and  what  is  its  object. 

2.  What  are  the  organs  of  circulation  ? 

3.  What  is  the  chief  organ,  and  where  is  it  situated? 

4.  Name  and  describe  in  what  the  heart  is  enveloped,  and  its  office. 

5.  With  what  is  the  interior  of  the  heart  lined  ? 

6.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  heart,  their  location  and  object  ? 

7.  How  does  the  blood  pass  from  the  auricles  to  the  ventricles  ? 

8.  What  keeps  it  from  returning  from  the  ventricles  to  the  auricles? 

9.  What  other  valves  are  there  in  the  circulation,  and  where  ? 

10.  By  which  side  and  parts  of  the  heart  is  pure  blood  transmitted  ? 

1 1 .  Which  cavities  of  the  heart  are  strongest  ? 

12.  Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

13.  Does  the  heart,  like  other  muscles,  have  rest  ? 

14.  What  is  the  use  of  the  stethoscope  ? 

15.  How  are  the  movements  of  the  heart  effected?    How  affected? 

1  The  spleen,  thymus  gland  (a  gland  found  in  children  upon  the  front  of 
the  neck),  and  other  ductless  glands,  in  connection  with  the  blood-vessels, 
elaborate  in  a  similar  manner  formative  constituents  of  the  blood.  When 
these  glands  are  diseased,  the  blood  is  likely  to  be  more  or  less  white  and 
watery. 


178  THE   CIRCULATION.  —  BLOOD. — LYMPH. 

IG.   What  can  you  say  as  to  its  vitality  ? 

17.  Describe  the  arteries  and  their  function. 

18.  How  is  the  intermittent  motion  of  the  blood  stopped,  and  where, 

and  why  ? 

19.  What  is  the  pulse  and  its  rate  ? 

20.  What  is  the  sphymograph  ? 

21.  What  causes  blushing  and  pallor?    Apoplexy? 

22.  Describe  the  capillaries. 

23.  How  are  the  nails,  cartilage,  etc.,  nourished? 

24.  Describe  the  veins. 

25.  By  what;  is  the  circulation  aided  ? 

26.  What  of  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation? 

27.  Does  the  blood  flow  to  or  from  the  heart  in  the  arteries?    In  the 

veins  ? 

28.  Where  then  would  you  compress  a  bleeding  artery  to  stop  its  flow  ? 

Where  a  vein  ? 

29.  What  facts  show  the  importance  of  blood? 

30.  Of  what  is  blood  composed  ? 

31.  How  does  it  appear  under  the  microscope? 

32.  What  is  the  function  of  the  red  corpuscles  ? 

33.  What  is  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  and  to  what  is  it  due,  and 

of  what  use  is  it  ? 

34.  When  does  blood  clot  in  the  blood-vessels  ? 

35.  What  is  paralysis  ?     A  bruise  ?    A  hemorrhage  ? 

36.  What  proportion  in  weight  of  the  body  is  blood  ? 

37.  What  effect  has  the  quality  of  the  blood  upon  the  general  health  ? 

38.  Describe  lymph  and  the  lymphatics. 

39.  Where  do  they  begin,  and  where  are  they  most  abundant? 

40.  Where  do  they  empty? 

41.  TVhat  are  the  lymphatic  glands  ? 

42.  What  processes  of  nutrition  are  intimately  connected  with  the 

circulation  of  blood  and  lymph  ? 


ANALYSIS. 


179 


ANALYSIS   OF    THE  ELEVENTH   CHAPTER, 


THE     CIRCULATION. 


r  Heart 


I.  Organs 


'  Structure. 
How  enclosed. 
How  lined. 
Cavities   I  Auricles,  right  and  left. 

(  Ventricles,  right  and  left. 
Movements. 
Sounds. 


I  Structure  and  functions. 

^  Blood-vessels .  .  ^  Capillaries   >  Rapidity    and  force   of 
[veins  J      circulation  in. 


II.  Blood 


'  Value. 

Composition. 

Varieties. 

Coagulation. 
<iuantity. 
^  Quality. 


LYMPH. 


1.  Conveyed,  in  lymphatics,  —  Lymph  canals  and  lacteals. 

2.  Elaborated  in  lymphatic  glands,  —  Number  and  location. 

3.  Composition  and  function. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
RESPIRATION.— ANIMAL  HEAT. 

253.  Blood,  to  nourish  the  tissues  effectually,  must  con- 
tain oxygen.  This  is  supplied  by  the  atmosphere  and  by 
various  foods,  the  largest  amount  being  furnished  by  the 
air  which  we  breathe.  Simultaneously  with  the  absorption 
of  oxygen,  the  blood  parts  with  its  carbonic  acid,  and 
becomes  pure.  This  process  is  effected  by  respiration  or 
breathing.  The  organs  of  respiration  comprise  the  lungs 
and  the  air  passages  leading  to  them.  The  lungs  are  two 
in  number,  and  are  located  in  the  thoracic  cavity,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  the  heart  and  its  great  blood-vessels,  and  by  the 
larger  air-tubes.  (Fig.  14.)  Each  lung  is  cone-like  in 
shape,  and  extends  upwards  to  the  lower  border  of  the  neck. 
Its  broadened  lower  surface  is  concave  in  form,  and  rests 
upon  the  upper  convex  surface  of  the  diaphragm.  The 
remaining  surfaces  of  the  lungs  are  convex  in  form,  and 
fit  into  the  concave  interior  of  the  chest  walls. 

254.  Free  movements  of  the  lungs  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  full  performance  of  their  functions^  and  are 
beautifully  provided  for  by  their  structure  and  coverings, 
and  by  the  arrangement  and  mobility  of  the  chest  walls. 
Covering  each  lung,  except  where  the  large  blood-vessels 
and  air-tubes  enter,  is  a  strong  but  delicately  constructed, 
closed  sac,  similar  to  the  pericardium,  known  as  the  pleu- 
ral sac.     These  sacs  are  together  known  as  the  pleura^  and 


EESPIRATION. — ANIMAL   HEAT.  181 

the  space  enclosed  by  each  as  the  pleural  cavity}  One 
wall  of  each  sac  is  closely  adherent  to  the  lung,  and  the 
other  to  the  concave  inner  wall  of  the  chest.  (Fig.  64.) 
The  lining,  or  inner  surface  of  each  sac  secretes  in  health 
just  enough  lubricating  fluid  to  allow  the  inner  surfaces 
of  the  walls  of  the  sac  to  glide  readily  upon  each  other  in 
the  process  of  breathing.^ 

255.  The  lung  substance,  like  a  sponge,  is  elastic^  and 
filled  with  enclosures  containing  air.  If  a  piece  of  the 
healthy  lung  of  an  ox  or  sheep  be  pressed  between  the 
fingers,  it  yields  a  peculiar  crackling,  which  is  due  to 
the  partial  dislodgement  of  air.  If  the  piece  be  tightly 
squeezed,  or  even  bruised  between  heavy  rollers,  sufficient 
air  will  still  be  remaining  in  it  to  cause  it  to  float  in  water. 
In  fact,  the  lungs  are  the  only  organs  in  the  body  that  will 
float. 

256.  The  air  passages  not  only  afford  transit  for  the 
air,  but  they  serve  also  to  warm,  cleanse,  and  moisten  it 
on  its  passage  to  the  lungs.  They  are  the  interior  of  the 
nose,  the  mouth,  pharynx,  larynx,  windpipe  or  trachea, 
and  the  bronchial  tubes. 

257.  Though  air  enters  the  mouth  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  the  nostrils  are  the  proper  channels  of  respiration. 
The  nose  is  especially  fitted  to  warm,  cleanse,  and  moisten 
the  inhaled  air.  It  is  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  and 
is  divided  by  a  middle  wall  of  cartilage  and  bone  into  sep- 
arate nostrils,  in  each  of  which  are  three  thin,  projecting 
plates  of  bone,  one  above  another.      These  curve  down- 

1  The  word  pleura  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  m«ans  "  rib"  or  "side." 

2  When  the  gliding  motions  are  hindered  by  the  more  or  less  intimate  adhe- 
sion of  the  secreting  surfaces  of  a  pleural  sac,  as  in  pleurisy,  anything  more 
than  the  quietest  breathing  is  attended  with  acute  pain. 


182  RESPIRATION. ANIMAL   HEAT. 

wards,  and  are  covered  by  mucous  membrane.^  The  air, 
therefore,  in  its  passage  through  the  nostrils,  comes  by  a 
circuitous  route  into  contact  with  a  large  extent  of  moist 
and  warm  mucous  membrane.  The  membrane  is  kept 
moist  by  the  secretions  of  its  mucous  glands,  and  warm  by 
being  richly  supplied  with  blood.^  In  addition  to  these 
arrangements  for  warming  the  air,  retarding  its  passage, 
and  ridding  it  of  dust,  there  are  hairs  just  within  the 
nostrils,  and  ciliated  cells  upon  a  portion  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose.  Similar  cells 
are  also  found  uj^on  the  posterior  sur- 
illlip^^^  face  of  the  soft  palate,  in  the  windpipe, 

and  other  portions  of  the  air  passages. 
They  are  called  ciliated  because  from 
them  project  ciliae,  or  hair-like,  micro- 
scopical processes  or  filaments.  These 
processes  are  constantly  vibrating,  but 
i_.    gg  with  greater  force,  in  opposition  to  the 

Diagram  of  a  vertical    entering  currcut  of  air,  or  from  within 

section  of  the  bronchial  t        i      •  -        ^ 

mucous  membrane.— 1,    outward,  their,  uuitcd  movcmcut  somc- 

ciliated  epithelial  cells ; 

2,  ciliae ;  3,  nuclei ;  4,    what   resembling^   that   of  a   miniature 

new  cells  ;  5,  basement  ^ 

membrane  ;    6,  fibrous     field  of  wllCat  whcil  mOVCd  bv  the  wiud. 

layer.  •  ^ 

The  natural  effect  of  such  a  moist  and 
beautifully  contrived  organism,  opposing  itself  to  the  en- 
tering air  current,  is  to  catch  from  it  foreign  particles 
wliich  may  be  intermingled  with  it,  and  gradually  carry 
them,  by  an  unceasing  counter  movement,  out  of  the  air 
passages. 

258.    On  the  other  hand,  when  we  breathe  through  the 
mouth,  foreign    particles  are   forced  into   the    throat  and 

1  These  bones  are  known  as  the  "  turbinated  "  bones,  from  their  fancied 

resemblance  to  tops. 

2  It  is  said  tliat  the  nasal  cavities  are  a  degree  or  two  warmer  than  the  cav- 
ity of  the  mouth. 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT.  183 

lungs,  and  act  as  irritants,  the  mouth  and  throat  become 
dry,  and  sufficient  time  is  not  taken  for  the  mastication  of 
food,  so  imperative  is  the  necessity  for  breathing.^  In  the 
habitual  mouth  breather,  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  being 
insufficiently  used,  dries  and  shrinks,  causing  discomfort. 
The  efforts  that  are  necessary  to  breathe  with  comfort  after 
a  while  result  in  more  or  less  lasting  unpleasant  expres- 
sions of  the  face ;  ^  the  mucous  membrane  is  liable  to  become 
more  or  less  inflamed,  and  thus  to  obstruct  the  nasal  pas- 
sages ;  hearing  is  interfered  with  by  partial  or  entire  closure 
of  the  Eustachian  tubes,  whose  function  it  is  to  convey  air 
to  the  organs  of  hearing ;  the  voice  loses  its  resonance,  and 
the  lungs  are  imperfectly  developed.  Sometimes  the  ton- 
sils, or  almond-shaped  glands,  located  one  on  each  side  of 
the  throat,  enlarge,  and  obstruct  the  free  movement  of  air 
through  the  nasal  cavities  and  Eustachian  tubes.  (Fig.  33.) 

1  Healthy  babies  breathe,  for  the  larger  part  of  the  time,  through  the  nose, 
with  the  mouth  shut;  and,  if  a  baby  is  in  the  habit  of  breathing  with  the  mouth 
open,  there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  enlarged  tonsils,  or  some  dis- 
ease of  the  nostrils.  A  Scotch  physician,  fully  appreciating  the  importance  of 
proper  breathing,  has  written  a  valuable  medical  paper,  entitled  "  Shut  your 
mouth  and  save  your  life."  W^e  are  told  that  some  Indian  tribes  understand 
the  importance  of  breathing  through  the  nose,  and  that  the  squaw,  before  retir- 
ing for  the  night,  sees  that  the  mouth  of  her  babe  is  shut.  Some  of  the  most 
careful  trainers  of  pedestrians  insist  that  walking  and  running  should  be,  as 
far  as  possible,  with  the  mouth  closed. 

2  ' '  Air  inspired  through  the  nose  passes  through  a  refining  process,  which 
prepares  it  for  the  lungs  very  much  as  mastication  prepares  food  for  the  stom- 
ach. If  food  is  improperly  masticated,  the  stomach  suffers.  If  air  is  improp- 
erly refined,  the  air  passages  suffer.  The  nose  and  not  the  month  was  designed 
as  the  gateway  to  the  lungs.  .  .  .  The  mouth  may  be  closed  on  going  to  sleep, 
opened  while  sleeping,  and  when  consciousness  arrives,  is  closed  again,  and  so 
many  are  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  they  ever  breathe  through  the  mouth.  If 
these  people  are  questioned  closely,  the  fact  will  be  elicited  that  the  mouth  and 
throat  are  always  dry  in  the  mornings,  and  that  it  may  be  several  hours  before 
this  condition  wears  away.  ...  When  dryness  of  the  throat  is  caused  by 
.sleeping  with  the  mouth  open,  if  the  nasal  passages  are  found  to  be  sufficiently 
large  to  supply  the  lungs  with  air,  the  mouth  should  be  kept  closed  by  wearing 
a  skull-cap  with  strings  or  straps  fastened  to  its  sides,  which,  being  tied  or 
buckled  under  the  chin,  hold  the  jaws  together."  —  Thomas  R.  French,  M.D. 


184  KESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 

If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  babies  and  young  chil- 
dren, whose  bones  are  deficient  in  mineral  ingredients, 
the  trouble  is  long  continued,  there  results,  from  the  re- 
peated violent  efforts  in  breathing  made  necessary,  a  more 
or  less  permanent  sinking  in  of  the  lateral  chest  walls,  thus 
causing  an  unnatural  protrusion  in  front.  This  condition 
is  popularly  known  as  the  "pigeon  breast." 

259.  The  pharynx  (before  described  in  connection  with 
the  alimentary  canal)  is  a  j)assage  for  air  as  well  as  food, 
though  the  organs  of  respiration  are  sometimes  said  to 
begin  with  the  larynx^  or  voice  box.  This  latter  organ  is 
located  in  front  of  and  adjoining  the  upper  end  of  the 
oesophagus.  (Fig.  33.)  It  is  composed  of  several  carti- 
lages controlled  by  muscles,  and  is  so  arranged  as  to  form 
a  kind  of  box.  About  the  middle  of  it  is  a  dilatable  open- 
ing called  the  glottis,  through  which  respiration  is  per- 
formed, and  by  means  of  which  articulate  sounds  are 
produced. 

260.  The  trachea  is  a  membranous  and  somewhat  elas- 
tic tube,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  four  and  a  half 
inches  in  length,  which  extends  downwards  from  the  lar- 
ynx. About  opposite  the  middle  of  the  third  dorsal  ver- 
tebra it  divides  into  smaller  tubes,  called  the  right  and 
left  bronchial  tubes,  which  enter  the  lungs.  These  in  turn 
divide  and  subdivide  like  the  branches  and  twigs  of  a  tree, 
becoming  smaller  and  smaller,  until  they  finally  end  in 
"  lobules,"  i.e.,  oval  sacs  or  bags. 

The  walls  of  the  trachea  are  held  apart  by  a  series  of 
imbedded  cartilages,  called  rings,  placed  at  nearly  equal 
distances  from  each  other.  These  rings  are  also  found  in 
the  larger  bronchial  tubes.  They  are  not  complete  rings, 
however,  for  they  do  not  meet  posteriorly,  an  arrange- 
ment which  gives  them  elasticity  and  pliancy,  and  allows 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 


185 


the  oesophagus  to  expand  readily  in  swallowing.  These 
rings  prevent  the  collapse  of  the  walls  of  the  trachea  and 
bronchial  tubes  in  respiration. 


-siissilipr 


Fig.  61, 
Lungs  in  outline,  showing  relations  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  the  hronchial  tubes 
and  their  branches.  — 1,  thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx;  2,  cricoid  cartilage; 
3,  trachea;  4,  its  point  of  bifurcation;    5,  right  bronchial  tube;  6,  left  bron- 
chial tube. 


261.  The  smallest  air-tubes,  or  bronchioles,  have  deli- 
cate, elastic,  membraneous  walls,  without  cartilages.  The 
lobules  in   which   they  end   are   divided   into   secondary 


186 


KESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 


compartments  by  thin  partitions  projecting  from  their 
inner  surfaces.  Each  compartment  or  pulmonary  vesi- 
cle, as  it  is  technically  called,  is 
only  about  one  seventy-fifth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  its  walls  are 
very  thin,  elastic,  and  distensible. 


Fig.  62. 
Ultimate  bronchial  tubes  and  their  lobules. 


Fig.  63. 
Lobules  laid  open. 


Covering  the  lobules,  and  dipping  down  between  the 
adjoining  walls  of  the  air  vesicles,  is  the  network  of  capil- 
lary blood-vessels  referred  to  in  the  last  chapter.  The 
convoluted  arrangement  of  the  walls  of  the  lobules  affords 
an  extensive  surface  of  very  delicate  membrane  for  the 
aeration  of  blood, — a  surface  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
entire  exterior  of  the  body.^ 

262.  The  process  of  respiration  consists  of  inspiration^ 
or  breathing  in,  and  expiration^  or  breathing  out.  In  in- 
spiration the  glottis  is  more  or  less  widely  opened,  the 
chest  walls  are  drawn  outward  and  upward  by  muscles 
overlying  the  chest,  and  by  muscular  fibres  between  the 


1  It  is  estimated  that  the  extent  of  surface  of  all  the  vesicles  is  about  1400 
square  feet,  and  that  "  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  about  20,000  litres 
(35,000  pints)  of  blood  traverse  the  capillaries,  the  blood  corpuscles  passing  in 
single  file,  and  being  exposed  to  air  on  both  surfaces." 


EESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 


187 


ribs,^  and  the  diaphragm  is  caused  to  descend  by  the 
contraction  of  its  muscles.  The  thorax  is  thus  dilated, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  elastic  air  vesicles  are  filled  with 
air  forcibly  sucked  in,  as  it  were,  somewhat  as  air  is  drawn 
into  a  syringe.  The  normal  enlargement  of  the  thorax  is 
in  three  directions ;  viz.,  vertical,  from  side  to  side,  and 
from  before  backward.     The  first — that  due  to  the  descent 


PLS 


PLS 


Fig.  64. 
Diagram.    Lungs  in  inspiration  and  expiration.  —1,  lungs  contracted  in  expiration, 
2,  lungs  expanded  in  inspiration;  T,  trachea;  CW,  chest  walls;  L,  the  lung 
substance;  PLS,  pleural  sacs  (the  walls  separated) ;  D,  the  diaphragm. 

of  the  diaphragm — is  the  greatest,  and  is  especially  marked 
in  young  children.  The  enlargements  from  side  to  side, 
and  from  before  backward,  are  most  marked  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest  of  the  adult  male,  and  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  chest  of  the  adult  female.  These  methods  of  enlarge- 
ment constitute  what  are  called  ''  types  of  respiration."  ^ 

1  There  are  two  sets  of  muscles  between  the  ribs  ;  viz.,  the  internal  and 
external  intercostal  muscles.  The  first,  by  contraction,  assist  in  pulling  the  ribs 
down  ;  the  second  serve  to  pull  them  up. 

2  The  vertical  breathing,  in  which  the  diaphragm  descends,  and  the  abdom- 
inal walls  and  contents  are  pushed  forward,  is  the  abdominal  type.  The  side- 
to-side  enlargement  is  the  inferior  costal,  and  the  from-before-backward  en- 
largement is  the  superior  costal  or  pectoral  type. 


188  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL  HEAT. 

263.  Expiration  immediately  follows  inspiration,  is  a 
passive  movement,  and  consists  in  the  gentle  expulsion  of 
the  air  outward  through  the  air  passages  by  the  elastic 
recoil  of  the  respiratory  apparatus. i  After  each  expira- 
tion there  is  a  short  period  of  rest.^  When  more  than 
ordinary  respiratory  efforts  are  necessary,  as  in  oratory, 
singing,  blowing  upon  wind  instruments,  etc.,  increased 
expiratory  force  is  created,  and  the  elastic  recoil  is  aided 
by  the  powerful  contractions  of  large  abdominal  muscles, 
which,  pulling  down  the  ribs  and  pressing  upon  the  con- 
tents of  the  abdomen,  forcibly  push  up  the  diaphragm, 
and  thus  squeeze  out  the  air  from  the  lungs.  Correspond- 
ing inspiratory  power  results  from  a  forcible  contraction 
of  the  diaphragm  and  of  the  respiratory  muscles  of  the 
chest.^ 

264.  In  children,  especially  under  three  years  of  age, 
breathing  is  effected  mainly  by  the  contractions  and  relax- 
ations of  the  diaphragm.*     As  the  person  grows  older  and 

1  By  placing  the  ear  over  a  healthy  lung,  we  can  hear  the  strong  movement 
of  the  air  as  it  enters  the  chest.  Expired,  it  gives  a  low-pitched  sound,  as  of 
a  very  gentle  wind.  Variations  in  the  pitch,  volume,  and  quality  of  these 
respiratory  sounds  or  "murmurs"  enable  the  physician  to  detect  diseases  or 
disturbances. 

2  According  to  Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson,  the  relative  durations  of  the  periods 
of  inspiration,  expiration,  and  repose  are  to  each  other  as  4:2:9,  the  duration 
of  the  whole  respiratory  act  being  represented  by  15. 

3  In  violent  inspiratory  efforts,  following  severe  physical  exercise,  or  when 
the  action  of  the  lungs  is  much  impeded  by  disease,  nearly  all  the  muscles  of 
the  body  may  assist  the  respiratory  muscles  proper,  by  fixing  various  parts 
of  the  body  so  that  the  respiratory  muscles  may  have  the  best  opportunities 
for  work. 

4  The  action  of  the  diaphragm  in  respiration  is  well  illustrated  with  an  open 
bell  jar,  whose  lower  and  larger  opening  is  tightly  covered  by  thin  rubber. 
Place  a  snugly-fitting  cork  in  the  neck  of  the  jar,  and  through  it  put  a  glass 
tube,  one  end  projecting  above  the  opening  of  the  neck,  and  the  other  end  with 
a  thin  rubber  bag  or  pouch  firmly  secured  to  it,  nearly  midway  into  the  body 
of  the  jar.  By  pulling  the  rubber  covering  of  the  jar  downwards,  air  will 
enter  the  tube  at  its  upper  end,  and  distend  the  bag,  as  in  inspiration.  When 
let  go,  air  will  be  forced  out,  as  in  expiration. 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL  HEAT.  189 

the  muscles  become  larger  and  stronger,  the  from-side-tg- 
side  and  from-before-backward  types  of  breathing  become 
in  the  lower  or  upper  part  of  the  chest  more  marked. 
But  at  all  periods  of  life,  the  free  action  of  the  diaphragm 
is  especially  necessary.  Though  mainly  composed  of  invol- 
untary muscular  fibres,  the  diaphragm  is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  under  the  control  of  the  will,  and  its  strength,  like 
that  of  the  other  respiratory  muscles,  can  be  increased  by 
proper  exercise,  such  as  singing,  reading  aloud,  oratory, 
etc.^  Hiccoughing,  sobbing,  and  laughter  are  occasioned 
by  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  respiratory  muscles,  espe- 
cially of  the  diaphragm.  Laughter,  crying,  and  sobbing, 
though  generally  under  the  control  of  the  will,  may  become 
violent  and  uncontrollable,  as  is  sometimes  witnessed  in 
the  anger  or  sorrow  of  children. ^ 

265.  The  movements  of  respiration  are  for  the  most 
part  involuntary.  From  birth  until  death,  asleep  and 
awake,  breathing,  like  the  circulation,  goes  on  involunta- 
rily. There  should  be  in  adults  one  act  of  respiration  to 
every  four  or  five  beats  of  the  heart,  and,  in  children,  one 
to  every  three  or  three  and  one-half  beats.  But  one  can 
increase  somewhat  the  rapidity  of  the  respiratory  move- 
ment up  to  his  limit  by  various  forms  of  exercise.  With 
such  increase,  the  heart's  movements  must  proportionately 
increase,  or  exhaustion  and  suffering  ensue  from  "  short- 
ness of  breath."     On  the  other  hand,  if  the  heart  beats 


1  Physicians  frequently  meet  with  persons,  especially  those  of  sedentary 
occupations,  whose  breathing  is  shallow,  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs  expanding 
but  very  little.  Oftentimes  by  proper  exercise  of  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and 
diaphragm  {i.e.,  by  so-called  lung  gymnastics),  the  respiratory  power  can  be 
increased  to  a  marked  extent,  and  incipierit  disease  of  the  lungs  warded  off. 

2  It  sometimes  happens  that  persons  having  the  charge  of  children  are  very 
severe  upon  them  for  persisting  in  sobbing,  when  it  is  utterly  out  of  their 
power  to  desist.  Fortunately,  in  general,  nature  teaches  parents  to  avoid  thi^ 
blunder. 


190  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 

rapidly  from  severe  exercise,  and  the  movements  of  the 
lungs  do  not  proportionately  increase,  either  on  account 
of  disease   or  restraint  by  tight  clothing,  the  individual 

suffers  in  like  manner,  and  is  "  out  of  breath." 

* 

266.  Soon  after  birth  the  number  of  respirations  is 
about  forty-five  per  minute ;  at  five  years,  twenty-six ; 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years,  nineteen;  about  the 
thirtieth  year,  sixteen ;  and  from  thirty  to  fifty,  eighteen. 
The  above  is  the  average  rate,  but  it  is  naturally  more 
rapid  where  there  is  small  lung  capacity,  or  when  breath- 
ing rarefied  air  at  great  heights,  or  when  taking  exercise, 
walking,  singing,  etc.  Of  course,  therefore,  where  the  con- 
trary to  these  conditions  exists,  the  rapidity  is  decreased.^ 
Few  persons  can,  without  great  effort,  suspend  respiration 
for  more  than  thirty  or  forty  seconds  at  any  one  time. 
The  desire  for  breath  soon  becomes  imperative,  owing  to 
the  circulation  of  blood  of  rapidly-increasing  impurity, 
especially  in  the  lungs  and  brain.  By  breathing  forcibly 
for  a  few  times,  then  taking  a  forced  inspiration,  respira- 
tion may  be  suspended  for  a  minute,  or  even  longer,  thus 
enabling  one  to  pass  quickly  through  a  cloud  of  dust, 
smoke,  or  other  injurious  matters  in  the  atmosphere,  or 
to  remain  for  a  short  time  under  water.^ 

267.  The  quantity  of  air  breathed  varies.  In  ordinary 
breathing,  during  each  act  of  respiration  an  average  of 
twenty  cubic  inches  of  air,  or  about  two-thirds  of  a  pint, 
are  inhaled  and  exhaled.  This  is  called  the  tidal  air, 
because  it  is  the  ordinary  amount  w^iich  ebbs  and  flows 

1  In  fact,  the  rate  of  breathing  varies,  and  has  been  found  to  be  as  low  as 
9,  and  as  high  as  40  per  minute,  in  different  persons,  when  seated,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  under  the  same  conditions. 

2  This  ability  to  hold  the  breath  can  be  increased  by  systematic  practice,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  ''water-kings  and  queens,"  who  sew,  write,  and  eat  under 
water. 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT.  191 

in  breathing.  It  is  said  not  to  penetrate,  by  the  ordinary 
movements  of  inspiration,  farther  than  the  large  bron- 
chial tubes.  But  by  the  process  known  as  gaseous  dif- 
fusion, the  heavier  carbonic  acid  in  the  air-cells  and  the 
vivifying  and  lighter  oxygen  in  the  bronchial  tubes  are 
mutually  intermingled.  But  this  intermixture  of  gases  in 
ordinary  breathing  only  partially  renovates  the  air  in  the 
various  parts  of  the  lungs.  It  is  estimated  that  from  eight 
to  ten  respirations  are  necessary  to  change  the  whole  quan- 
tity of  air  in  the  chest  cavity.  From  what  has  been  said 
it  will  be  understood  that  in  quiet,  ordinary  breathing 
about  six  quarts  of  air  pass  into  and  out  of  the  lungs 
every  minute,  or  about  ninety  gallons  per  hour,  or  sixty 
barrels  per  day.  Large  as  this  amount  is,  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  healthy  persons  during  active  exercise,  or  for 
any  one,  if  the  atmosphere  be  vitiated  by  impurities.  Con- 
tinued ordinary  (or  tidal  air)  breathing^  such  as  is  common 
among  persons  engaged  in  sedentary  occupations,  is  insuffi- 
cient for  the  healthy  development  of  the  lungs.  For  this 
reason,  among  others,  systematic  exercise  in  the  open  air  is 
important.  Were  it  not  for  the  more  profound  inspiration 
and  expiration  which  usually  occurs  at  about  every  fifth 
or  sixth  act  of  respiration,  whereby  an  increased  amount 
of  air  is  carried  into  and  out  of  the  lungs,  such  persons 
would  suffer  more  than  they  do  from  the  excess  of  carbonic 
acid  not  eliminated.^ 

268.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  a  healthy  lung 
contains  air  which  cannot  be  expelled.  This  is  called 
residual  air.  The  air  which  remains  in  the  lungs  after  an 
ordinary  expiration,  but  which  may  be  expelled  by  a  forced 

1  It  is  well  known  to  physicians  that  persons  with  "shallow  respirations," 
either  because  of  sedentary  occupations,  or  from  habit,  or  tight  clothes,  are 
most  likely  to  suffer  from  consumption  and  other  lung  diseases,  especially  if 
the  air  breathed  is  impure. 


192  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 

expiration,  is  termed  reserve  air.  By  a  forcible  inspi- 
ration after  an  ordinary  inspiration,  an  average  of  about 
120  cubic  inches  of  air  may  be  inhaled.  This  is  known 
as  complemental  air.  The  extreme  breathing  capacity,  or 
vital  capacity^  as  it  has  been  called,  is  equal  to  the  vol- 
ume of  air  which  can  be  expelled  from  the  lungs  by  a 
forcible  expiration  following  a  deep  and  forcible  inspira- 
tion.    It  may  be  determined  by  an  instrument  known  as 


Complemental  air    ...    .  100  to  120  cubic  Inches. 

Tidal  air 20  to    30      '*  " 

Reserve  air 75  to  100     "  *' 

Residual  air 75  to  100     "  " 

Fig.  65. 

If  the  above  diagram  represent  the  greatest  amount  of  air  that  can  be 
inspired,  then  the  different  divisions  will  approximately  represent  the  comple- 
mental, tidal,  reserve,  and  residual  air. 

the  spirometer,^  and  is  found  to  be,  in  a  person  of  aver- 
age stature  (5  ft.  8  in.)  about  230  cubic  inches ;  but  the 
vital  capacity  is  no  evidence  of  itself  of  vitality  or  endur- 
ance, or  so-called  "wind,"  for  it  bears  a  definite  relation 
to  stature,  without  being  affected  in  a  marked  degree 
by  weight  or  the  circumference  of  the  chest."  ^  It  is 
diminished   by  severe  thoracic   and  abdominal  diseases; 

1  Commonly  called  "  lung-tester." 

2  It  has  been  shown  by  Hutchinson  of  England,  who  has  made  the  most 
numerous  investigations  in  this  direction,  and  who  makes  the  above  statement, 
that  for  every  inch  in  height  between  five  and  six  feet,  the  vital  capacity  is 
increased  eight  inches.  It  increases  up  to  the  age  of  thirty-five,  and  then 
diminishes. 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT.  193 

but  the  vitality  of  an  individual  depends  more  upon  the 
condition  of  the  heart  than  upon  the  expansive  capacity 
of  the  lungs. 

269.  The  changes  that  take  place  in  the  air  during 
respiration  are  as  follows:  Inspired  air  is  robbed  of  a 
large  part  of  its  oxygen,  which  is  appropriated  by  the 
blood  between  the  adjacent  walls  of  the  air  vesicles.  At 
the  same  time  the  air  acquires  various  matters,  the  results 
of  tissue  changes,  which  have  been  brought  to  the  air-cells 
by  the  circulation.  Hence,  expired  air  is  charged  with 
noxious  materials,  and  will  not  support  combustion  or 
maintain  life.  Animals  and  human  beings  obliged  to 
breathe  it  exclusively  soon  die.  It  contains  carbonic 
acid  1  in  excess,  and  small  quantities  of  various  excretory 
products  similar  to  those  excreted  by  the  skin  and  kid- 
neys ;  2  also,  an  animal  matter  which  is  offensive  and  very 
prone  to  putrefy.  It  differs  also  from  inspired  air  in  that 
its  temperature,  especially  in  slow  and  tranquil  breathing, 
is  raised  to  nearly  that  of  the  blood,  and  because  it  con- 
tains an  excess  of  watery  vapor.^  This  vapor  is  especially 
noticeable  when  the  breath  is  exhaled  upon  a  mirror  or 
window  pane,  or  when  it  condenses  in  winter,  as  it  issues 
from  the  mouth  and  nostrils.*  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  heav- 
ier than  air,  and  is  very  poisonous  to  breathe.  It  consti- 
tutes about  one  twenty-fifth  of  the  ^ir  that  passes  out  of 

1  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  per  day  by  a  healthy  adult  is  esti- 
mated at  about  32,000  cubic  inches,  while  the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  per 
day  is  estimated  at  about  40,000  cubic  inches. 

2  "  Chloride  of  sodium,  uric  acid,  and  urates  of  soda  and  ammonia.  It  also 
sometimes  contains  carbonate  and  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  and  carburetted 
hydrogen  and  various  odorous  substances  from  the  food  and  drink  consumed." 

3  The  air  exhaled  per  day  contains  an  average  amount  of  nine  or  ten  ounces 
of  water,  but  the  amount  varies  with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 

^  In  cases  of  suspected  death,  the  condensation  of  the  watery  vapor  of  the 
breath  upon  the  glass  of  a  watch  or  a  hand-mirror  is  an  important  evidence 
that  life  is  still  present  in  the  body. 


194  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 

the  lungs,  and  tends  to  make  the  atmosphere  impure. 
The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  expelled  is  increased  by 
exercise,  and  during  and  after  a  hearty  meal.  It  is 
greatest  in  winter  and  damp  weather,  and  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  early  morning,  and  is  least  at  mid- 
night.i  («.) 

270.  There  are  also  changes  in  the  Mood  during  respira- 
tion. The  ancients  believed  that  the  function  of  the  air 
so  regularly  introduced  into  the  lungs  was  to  cool  the 
blood.  The  chemist  Lavoisier  first  ascertained  that  in- 
haled air  was  rich  in  oxygen,  and  exhaled  air  in  carbonic 
acid.  Physiologists,  after  prolonged  and  difficult  investi- 
gations, found,  first,  that  associated  with  these  changes  in 
the  air  was  the  striking  change  in  the  color  of  the  blood 
from  blue  in  the  pulmonary  veins  to  scarlet  in  the  capil- 
laries of  the  lungs.  Second,  that  this  change  was  due  to 
the  inhaled  oxygen.  If  the  breathing  is  seriously  ob- 
structed, the  lips  and  face  turn  a  purplish  blue.  If  the 
obstruction  is  removed,  the  blood  resumes  its  bright  color, 
and  the  parts  renew  their  functions.  If  the  obstruction 
is  not  removed,  the  change  in  color  is  noticeable  in  other 
parts  of  the  body,  impure  blood  is  circulated  through  the 
brain,  and  the  individual  becomes  drowsy  and  unconscious, 
and  death  ensues.  There  is  constantly  going  on  in  the 
blood  a  double  change^  —  a  loss  of  oxygen,  and  a  gain  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  tissues ;  and  a  loss  of  carbonic  acid, 
and  a  gain  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs. 

1  The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  breath  may  be  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing experiment,  which  is  all  the  more  striking  if  tried  after  one  has  talked 
or  sung  awhile,  or  after  a  hearty  meal.  First,  the  gas,  being  acid,  will  change 
the  blue  color  of  a  solution  of  litmus  to  a  red,  when  the  breath  is  gently 
blown  into  the  solution  thtough  a  glass  tube  for  a  variable  length  of  time. 
Second,  that  the  expired  air  contains  carbonic  acid  will  be  shown  by  changing 
clear  lime-water,  in  the  same  manner  as  above,  to  a  cloudy  white  liquid,  due 
to  the  carbonate  of  lime  formed. 


RESPIRATION. — ANIMAL   HEAT.  195 

The  urgent  appeal  of  the  lungs  for  pure  air,  when  the 
breathing  has  been  carried  on  in  an  impure  atmosphere,  or 
where  the  lungs  are  in  a  diseased  or  abnormal  condition, 
is  like  the  appetite  for  food  on  the  part  of  the  digestive 
organs.  The  cry  originates  in  the  tissues,  which  demand, 
in  the  one  case  the  food,  and  in  the  other  the  oxygen,  which 
are  necessary  to  life.  Carbonic  acid  is  not  only  discharged 
by  the  lungs,  but  also  by  the  kidneys  and  skin.  In  fact, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  skin  is  an  accessory  organ  of  respira- 
tion, taking  in  oxygen,  as  well  as  giving  out  carbonic  acid. 
In  some  of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life  the  skin  is  the 
active  organ  of  respiration. 

271.  Animal  Heat.  It  has  been  already  stated  that 
the  living  bodies  of  all  animals  have  a  temperature  pecu- 
liar to  each  species.  This  is  known  as  the  vital  or  animal 
heat.  Where  the  temperature  is  generally  higher  than 
that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  as  in  man,  quadru- 
peds, and  birds,  the  animals  are  disthiguished  as  warm- 
blooded animals,  while  fishes  and  reptiles  are  known  as 
cold-blooded  animals,  their  temperature  varying  but  little 
from  that  of  the  air  or  water  in  which  they  live.  It 
was  at  one  time  supposed  that  the  sole  internal  cause  of 
this  heat  was  the  combustion  of  carbonaceous  material  in 
the  lungs.  At  present  it  is  known  that  "  the  production  of 
heat  in  living  organisms  is  in  proportion  to  the  activity  of 
their  internal  changes.  These  changes  are  especially  indi- 
cated by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the  exhalatic^n  of 
carbonic  acid."  While  it  is  true  that  the  more  rapid  the 
respiration  the  higher  the  temperature,  heat  production  is 
not  exclusively  connected  with  respiration,  but  is  essential 
to  all  the  manifestations  of  animal  life.  Animal  heat 
remains  in  the  body  for  a  variable  period  after  the  blood 
has  ceased  to  flow  and  respiration  has  stopped  and  the  in- 


^ 


196  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL  HEAT. 

dividual  is  said  to  be  dead.  Instances  are  on  record  of  life 
being  restored  by  the  application  of  heat  to  the  body,  both 
externally  and  internally,  and  by  arousing  the  circulation 
and  the  action  of  the  lungs  by  means  of  electricity,  the 
practice  of  artificial  respiration,  and  the  use  of  stimulants.^ 

272.  Animal  temperature  is  usually  ascertained  by 
means  of  a  thermometer  made  for  that  purpose.^  When 
in  use  the  bulb  of  the  instrument  is  generally  placed  in 
the  armpit,  or  under  the  tongue,  the  lips  being  closed  to 
exclude  air.  The  temperature  so  ascertained  is,  in  man  in 
health,  98i°  F.  to  99°  F.  A  temperature  of  105°  generally 
marks  a  severe  attack  of  some  disease ;  one  above  105° 
indicates  great  danger,  and  a  "  temperature  of  110°  to  112° 
is  very  quickly  fatal,  unless  it  yields  to  the  application  of 
cold."  Seldom  does  the  temperature  fall  below  91.4°  F. 
One  of  96°  indicates  great  danger,  and,  to  use  a  medical 
term,  is  a  symptom  of  commencing  "collapse."  Below 
92°  the  probability  of  recovery  is  small. 

Though  the  average  normal  temperature,  as  ascertained 
by  the  thermometer,  is  about  98 J  °  F.,  the  general  tempera- 
ture of  the  interior  of  the  body  is  about  100°  F. ;  but  the 
temperature  of  different  parts  of  the  body  varies  some- 
what. In  the  skin  and  lungs,  by  reason  of  the  contact  of 
air  and  the  vaporization  of  water,  the  blood  is  cooled  a 
little,  and  the  animal  temperature  is  slightly  diminished. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  is  raised  in  the  mus- 
cles and  glandular  organs,  especially  during  their  func- 
tional activity,  and,  above  all,  in  the  liver. 

273.  It  is  also  modified^  first,  by  age^  being  higher  in 
the  young  child  than  in  the  adult ;  second,  by  the  period 

1  See  Emergencies,  page  324. 

-  Known  as  a  "medical"  or  "clinical"  thermometer,  designed  especially 
for  the  use  of  physicians, 


EESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT.  197 

of  the  day^  rising  quickly  in  the  morning,  more  slowly 
towards  night,  and  being  lowest  about  inidnight ;  third,  hy 
food^  rising  during  and  after  the  digestion  of  a  meal,  espe- 
cially of  warm  food.  It  is  increased  also  by  muscular  and 
mental  exertion^  and  by  surrounding  higher  temperatures^ 
and,  of  course,  is  lowered  by  the  opposite  conditions. 
Exposure  to  moisture  and  a  high  degree  of  heat,  espe- 
cially if  accompanied  with  exercise,  is  apt  to  cause  death, 
which  is  then  said  to  be  the  result  of  "sunstroke"  or 
"  heatstroke."  ^  The  old,  the  feeble,  and  the  inactive  are 
most  affected  by  high  temperatures,  and  in  them  also  ani- 
mal heat  is  maintained  at  its  normal  point  with  the  greatest 
difficulty.  With  them  the  blood  circulates  more  slowly, 
vital,  chemical,  and  mechanical  processes  take  place  less 
rapidly,  and  heat  is  generated  in  smaller  amount  than  in 
robust  health.  "Thence  it  is,"  says  Bennett,  "that  the  old 
man  seeks  the  sun,  and  that  we  find  him  in  the  country 
sitting  at  his  door  for  hours,  basking  in  the  sun,  seeking 
from  its  genial  rays  the  warmth  which  the  organic  pro- 
cesses no  longer  afford,  as  in  former  days,  the  days  of  his 
youth,  and  of  his  organic  vigor." 

274.  In  summer  and  in  hot  countries  perspiration 
and  a  decreased  amount  of  clothing  moderate  the  animal 

1  The  terms  "preternatural  combustibility"  and  "spontaneous  combus- 
tion "  have  been  applied  to  the  rapid  destruction  of  the  human  body  by  fire, 
which  has  been  supposed  to  have  resulted  from  excessive  animal  heat.  "It  is 
signific^t  that  no  case  of  spontaneous  combustion  has  ever  happened  in  an 
animal.  Of  all  the  so-called  cases  in  man,  not  one  has  actually  been  seen  to 
happen.  .  .  .  Such  occurrences  usually  take  place  in  persons  addicted,  during 
their  life,  to  habits  of  intoxication.  ...  It  is  rational  to  conclude,  more  espe- 
cially as  habitual  drunkards  are  incapable  of  exercising  care  in  regard  to 
sources  of  danger,  that  they  have  themselves,  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  set 
fire,  in  falling,  or  otherwise,  to  their  clothes  or  other  combustible  materials, 
or  that  they  have  been  reached  by  flames,  otherwise  occasioned  by  the  falling 
of  candles,  or  by  the  emission  of  sparks  from  the  fire."  —  Outlines  of  Physi- 
ology. Marshaxl. 


198  RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT. 

temperature ;  in  cold  climates  and  seasons  the  heat  of  the 
body  is  preserved  by  extra  clothing,  and  by  warming  the 
atmosphere  with  artificial  heat,  by  more  exercise,  and  an 
increased  amount  of  food.  It  is  the  testimony  of  many 
observant  travellers,  that  the  health  of  persons  journeying 
from  one  climate  to  another  is  best  preserved  when  the 
customs  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  climates  are  followed, 
in  regard  to  food,  exercise,  and  clothing,  (a.) 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  respiration,  and  what  are  its  organs  ? 

2.  Describe  the  lungs,  and  how  free  movements  of  them  are  secured. 

3.  Name  the  air  passages  and  their  four  functions. 

4.  Describe  the  nose,  and  its  advantages  over  the  mouth  as  an  air 


5.  With  what  passage  do  the  nasal  cavities  connect,  and  what  tubes 

and  glands  are  there  located  ?     State  the  object  of  the  tubes. 

6.  How  may  enlarged  tonsils  cause  a  child  to  become  pigeon-breasted  ? 

7.  What  is  situated  below  the  pharynx,  and  of  what  air  passage  is  it 

the  commencement  ? 

8.  Describe  the  larynx;  the  trachea;  the  bronchial  tubes;  the  lobules. 

9.  How  are  the  trachea  and  other  air-tubes  kept  open  ?     How  the 

smaller  tubes  ? 

10.  Why  do  these  tubes  terminate  in  convoluted  lobules,  and  what 

blood-vessels  are  there  placed  ? 

11.  Of  what  does  the  mechanical  act  of  respiration  consist?    Describe 

each  process. 

12.  What  may  aid  powerful  respiratory  efforts  ?    Describe  the  action 

of  the  diaphragm. 

13.  What  connection  has  the  will  with  respiration?  the  heart?  the 

condition  of  the  blood  ? 

14.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  tidal  air ;  by  residual  air ;  by  reserve 

air ;  by  complemental  air ;  by  vital  capacity. 

15.  What  changes  take  place  in  the  air  during  respiration?    in  the 

blood? 

16.  Where  does  the  appeal  for  fresh  air  originate,  and  how  is  the 

needed  oxygen  supplied  through  the  lungs? 


RESPIRATION.  —  ANIMAL   HEAT.  199 

17.  In  what  other  way  is  oxygen  introduced  into  the  system  ? 

18.  Define   animal  heat.     AVhat   are   its  sources,  and  by  what  is  it 

affected  and  regulated  ? 

19.  What  is  the  average  degree  of  temperature  in  health,  as  ascer- 

tained by  the  thermometer? 

20.  What  is  the  average  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  body? 

21.  How  can  we  maintain  the  normal  temperature  of  our  bodies  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF    THE   TWELFTH   CHAPTER. 
RESPIRATION. 


I.  Object. 

1.  Lungs I  Structure. 

(  Functions. 
II.  Organs.  .  .  .  ^  2.  Air  passages,  —  or  nose,  mouth,  ^ 

pharynx,  larynx,  trachea,  and  >^^^^  .^^^' 
bronchial  tubes.  J  functions. 

III.  Mechanism,  —  Inspiration  and  expiration. 

IV.  Amount  of  Air  Breathed. 

V.  Effects    ..     5  Upon  the  air. 

C  Upon  the  blood. 

ANIMAL    HEAT. 
I.  Causes. 
II.  Necessity. 

III.  Range  in  Health  and  Disease. 

IV.  How  Modified. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

275.  So  well  is  man  adapted  to  the  atmosphere^  that  its 
density  cannot  be  much  increased  or  diminished  without 
interference  with  the  circulation,  respiration,  and  other 
vital  processes.  The  thickness  of  the  atmosphere  is  sup- 
posed to  be  not  less  than  45,  and  not  more  than  200  miles  ; 
and  the  pressure  of  this  immense  mass  at  the  sea  level  is 
computed  to  be  15  lbs.  upon  every  square  inch  of  surface. 
Upon  the  body  of  a  man,  therefore,  of  average  size,  it  is 
more  than  sixteen  tons?-  This  pressure,  enormous  as  it 
appears,  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  animal  economy.  At 
great  heights,  where  atmospheric  pressure  is  diminished, 
breathing  becomes  exceedingly  difficult,  or  impossible. 
Not  only  does  the  rarefied  air  not  furnish  sufficient  oxygen 
to  the  lungs,  but  carbonic  acid  is  imperfectly  eliminated, 
and  owing  to  the  diminished  pressure  upon  the  blood-vessels, 
that  pressure  is  overcome  by  the  force  of  the  circulation, 
and  bleeding  may  occur  from  the  nose,  mouth,  and  ears.^ 

276.  In  deep  subterranean  and  submarine  excavations, 
such  as  mines,  tunnels,  etc.,  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 
so  increased  that  the  workers  in  them  are  often  disabled. 
Sometimes  in  the  construction  of  the  piers  of  such  large 
bridges  as  that  over  the  East  River,  between  New  York 
and  Brooklyn,  it  is  necessary  to  sink  an  immense  inverted 

1  The  surface  of  a  man's  body  of  medium  size  is  about  fifteen  square  feet. 

2  In  the  reports  of  the  dredging  operations  of  H.M.S.  Challenger,  it  is  said: 
Fish  were  brought  up  from  great  depths  distended  and  deformed,  with  their 
swimming  bladders  protruding  from  their  mouths,  because,  on  coming  to  the 
surface,  the  great  pressure  under  which  they  were  accustomed  to  live  was 
removed. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  201 

box  or  "caisson,"  in  which  men  work,  digging  out  the 
earth  for  the  foundations.  As  the  earth  is  excavated,  the 
caisson  sinks,  and  the  air  which  it  is  necessary  to  pump 
in  becomes  exceedingly  dense,  and  its  pressure  equals  the 
pressure  of  the  water  without.^  Such  dense  air  is  as 
injurious  as  exceedingly  rarefied  air,  producing  severe  neu- 
ralgic pains,  great  prostration,  hemorrhages,  or  paralysis.^ 

277.  Atmospheric  air  is  a  mixture^  the  essential  ingre- 
dients of  which  are  oxygen^  nitrogen^  carbonic  acid^  and 
watery  vapor.  The  first  two  exist  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  in  bulk  of  oxygen  to  four  parts  of  nitrogen.  The 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  very  small  at  ordinary  eleva- 
tions, or  about  one  gallon  in  every  2500  of  air.  Its  pres- 
ence in  the  atmosphere  is  shown  by  the  film  of  carbonate 
of  lime  which  forms  upon  lime  water  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  amount  of  watery  vapor  depends  largely  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  air.^ 

1  "Sometimes  in  deep  mines,  and  in  works  conducted  under  water,  as  in 
laying  the  foundations  of  bridges,  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  as  much  as  sixty 
or  seventy  pounds  avoirdupois  on  the  square  inch  .  .  .  Great  care  should 
be  taken  that  those  who  are  subjected  to  such  high  pressure  be  not  suddenly 
exposed  to  air  at  the  normal  pressure,  for  the  effect  is  equivalent  to  the  ap- 
plication of  a  gigantic  cupping-glass  to  the  whole  ho&j ,''— Human  Physio- 
logy.   Powers. 

2  "  Caisson  disease  "  has  seriously  impaired  the  health  of  the  chief  engineer 
of  the  East  River  Bridge,  and  also  that  of  some  of  the  workmen.  At  the  St. 
Louis  Bridge,  when  one  of  the  caissons  touched  a  rocky  bed,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  was  45  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  and  by  the  rise  of  the  river  it  was 
increased  to  50  lbs.  When  the  pressure  was  34  lbs.  severe  suffering  began. 
It  was  found  that  the  men  could  only  work  one  or  two  hours  at  a  time.  They 
were  generally  taken  sick  when  coming  out  of  the  air-lock  into  the  normal 
atmosphere,  seldom  in  the  air-lock  itself. 

3  "It  seldom  forms  more  than  joth,  or  less  than  200*^1  of  the  bulk  of  the 
air." —  Chemistry  of  Common  Life.    Johnston. 

That  water  is  present  in  the  air  is  seen  by  its  condensation  in  drops  upon  an 
ice-cold  vessel  —  a  pitcher  or  tumbler  of  ice-water  —  in  hot  weather ;  also  in 
the  dew,  hoar  frost,  fog,  rain,  and  snow,  and  in  the  effect  on  certain  solid  sub- 
stances which  have  the  property  of  combining  with  water  and  becoming  liquid. 
Such  substances,  of  which  calcium  chloride  is  an  example,  are  said  to  be 
deliqvescent. 


202  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

278.  In  the  specimens  of  air  that  have  been  examined 
from  time  to  time  in  different  localities,  and  at  varying 
altitudes,  the  relative  proportions  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen 
have  been  found  to  vary  but  little,  but  the  amounts  of 
carbonic  acid  and  water  vary  materially.  Other  ingredi- 
ents are  occasionally  present  in  appreciable  quantity ;  viz., 
ozone,  ammonia,^  nitrous  and  nitric  acids,  dust,  and  gases 
from  marshes,  factories,  chemical  works,  etc. 

279.  Oxygen^  as  we  have  seen,  is  necessary  to  purify 
the  blood  and  sustain  life.  Animals  usually  die  when  the 
quantity  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere  is  reduced  from 
three  to  five  per  cent.  Without  it,  combustible  bodies 
would  not  burn.  Its  dilution  with  nitrogen^  which  is  a 
harmless,  inert  gas,  is  in  the  exact  proportion  which  is  best 
required  to  support  life,  and  that  degree  of  combustion 
which  is  most  useful  to  the  ordinary  purposes  of  mankind. 
Any  diminution  of  its  normal  amount  is  attended  with  as 
bad  results  as  is  the  addition  to  air  of  harmful  substances. 
On  the  other  hand,  were  the  oxygen  in  excess,  it  would 
become  a  very  destructive  agent,  and  in  proportion  to  that 
excess.  In  such  cases  the  tissues  of  animals  would  be 
rapidly  consumed,  together  with  all  bodies  having  any 
chemical  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  such  as  were  set  on  fire 
would  burn  beyond  control.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
nutritive  substances,  we  cannot  live  on  oxygen  only.  Just 
as  we  find  the  most  valuable  food  constituents  to  become 
less  valuable  when  used  alone,  so  oxygen  requires  also  to 
be  diluted  with  the  other  ordinary  constituents  of  the  air 
to  become  even  respirable. 

280.  As  the  diamond,  charcoal,  and  graphite  are  dif- 
ferent forms  of  carbon,  so  ozone  is  a  form  of  oxygen,  but 
has  greater  chemical  activity  as  an  oxidizing  agent ;  hence, 

1  Of  ammonia  there  are  about  3J  gallons  in  10,000,000  gallons  of  air. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTIOK.  —  LIGHT.  203 

it  is  a  powerful  disinfectant,  and  is  recommended  for  the 
purification  of  sick  rooms. ^  It  exists  in  very  minute  quan- 
tity in  the  air,  and  thus  diffused,  is  considered  a  stimulat- 
ing agent  in  debilitated  conditions  of  the  system.  It  is 
much  more  abundant  in  the  country  than  in  towns,  and 
its  quantity  is  increased  just  after  a  thunder  storm.  Air 
highly  charged  with  ozone  is  irrespirable,  and  is  capable  of 
bleaching  and  destroying  vegetable  coloring  matters. 

281.  It  sometimes  happens  that  air  is  rendered  more  or 
less  injurious  by  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  other  sus- 
pended matters^  or  by  an  undue  proportion  of  one  or  more 
of  its  normal  constituents,  or  by  the  addition  to  it  of  poi- 
sonous gases. 

A  ray  of  sunlight  in  a  darkened  room,  or  in  the  open 
air,  upon  a  foggy  day,  reveals  in  its  track  myriads  of  shin- 
ing particles  of  dust,  however  clear  the  atmosphere  may 
otherwise  seem.  From  the  researches  of  Tyndall,  Pasteur, 
and  others,  we  know  that  this  dust  consists,  according  to 
the  place,  in  varying  proportions,  of  starch  granules, 
cotton  fibres,  spores,  seeds,  pollen,  and  cellular  tissue,  of 
wool,  hair,  epidermal  cells,  and  other  animal  substances, 
—  sometimes  in  a  state  of  decay,  —  of  particles  of  carbona- 
ceous and  siliceous  or  flint-like  matters,  and  of  microscopic 
organisms  in  a  living  state. 

282.  These  substances  come  from  factory  and  home 
fires,  from  the  combustion  and  decay  of  animal  and  vege- 
table bodies,  from  the  "  wear  and  tear "  of  wooden  and 
stone  pavements,  shoe-leather,  furniture,  carpets,  uphol- 
stery, clothing,  etc.  From  hundreds  of  sources  these 
suspended  matters  are  wafted  by  the  winds,  and  some 

1  The  quantity  varies  at  different  times  and  places,  but  is  said  to  be,  at  the 
most,  about  one  volume  in  700,000  of  air,  and  is  quite  constant  in  the  atmos- 
phere among  pine  trees.  Ozone  passed  through  a  mass  of  putrifying  material 
will  rid  it  of  noxious  odors. 


204  AIR .  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

believe  are  also  carried  by  flies,  mosquitoes,  and  other 
insects.  They  are  found  almost  everywhere,  even  pene- 
trating close  joints  of  carpentry  work.  When  in  large 
quantity  in  the  air,  as  at  times  in  cities,  they  are  frequently 
irritating  to  the  respiratory  organs,  especially  of  feeble 
people.  In  such  cases  it  is  advisable  to  protect  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  by  a  handkerchief,  tippet,  or  veil,  or  a  piece  of 
cotton  wool  or  sponge,  or  any  other  object  through  which 
the  air  can  be  breathed,  and  at  the  same  time  the  dust  be 
prevented  from  entering  the  air  passages.^  In  the  same 
way  the  temperature  of  very  cold  air  may  be  mitigated, 
and  be  more  safely  breathed. 

283.  In  addition  to  the  substances  already  mentioned, 
it  is  believed  by  many  physicians,  that  at  certain  times 
there  are  wafted  through  the  air  peculiar  particles  called 
"  disease  ^erms,"  which  are  capable  of  producing,  accord- 
ing to  their  kind,  particular  diseases,  such  as  small  pox, 
scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  yellow  fever,  etc.,  —  each  disease 
having  its  own  peculiar  germ.  (^.)  The  ^^  germ  theory'^  of 
infection  has  arisen  from  observing  the  manner  in  which 
the  thistle  and  other  plants  spring  up  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  in  consequence  of  the  wide  diffusion  of  their 
seeds  by  the  winds.  (b.~)  The  development  of  these 
germs  is  believed  to  be  as  rapid  as  is  that  of  the  spores  of 
the  yeast  plant,  when  for  both  there  are  favorable  condi- 
tions of  warmth  and  moisture,  and  the  former  have  a 
feeble  human  body  as  a  nidus  for  development,  and  the 
latter  fermenting  material.  Disease  germs  may  lie  dor- 
mant in  cold  weather,  or  where  their  surroundings  are 
'. ■ 

1  In  certain  occupations,  such  as  stone  cutting,  metal  polishing,  knife  and 
glass  grinding,  or  in  white  lead  works  and  other  manufactories,  the  dust  is  so 
plentiful  and  irritating  at  times  that  "  respirators  "  are  worn,  consisting  of 
frameworks  of  wire  gauze,  made  to  fasten  over  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  and 
containing  a  piece  of  sponge,  cotton,  wool,  or  other  similar  substance  slightly 
dampened. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  205 

clean,  only  to  grow  and  develop  in  the  presence  of  moist- 
ure and  filth,  and  be  carried  long  distances  in  merchandise 
and  clothing,  especially  in  woollen  materials.^  Complete 
isolation  and  cleanly  surroundings  of  persons  with  infec- 
tious diseases  (i.e.,  quarantining)  will  generally  prevent 
the  spread  of  infection.^ 

284.  The  organic  nitrogenous  matter  which  is  thrown  off 
from  the  lungs,  mingled  with  carbonic  acid  and  watery 
vapor,  does  much  towards  vitiating  the  atmosphere.  Its 
exact  composition  has  not  been  ascertained.  It  has  a  dis- 
agreeable, persistent  odor,  and  is  known  to  be  poisonous.^ 
Combined  with  the  emanations  from  the  skin  and  other 
impurities,  the  mixture  gives  to  the  atmosphere  of  a 
crowded  room  that  odor  which  is  so  disagreeable  to  those 
who  enter  the  room  from  the  outer  air,  or  that  close, 
oppressive  sensation,  perceived  so  often  in  the  unventilated 
rooms  of  tenement  houses. 

Air  containing  such  ingredients  ordinarily  acts  as  a 
subtle  poison,  undermining  the  health,  and  changing  the 
character  of  the  blood,  especially  of  those  who  are  obliged 
to  spend  much  of  their  time  in  it,  and  Avho  do  not  exer- 
cise in  the  open  air.  It  becomes  exceedingly  poisonous  if 
breathed  and  rebreathed  by  a  large  number  of  persons  in 

1  It  is  believed  by  Prof.  Tyndall  and  others,  that  " disease  germs"  are 
among  the  most  dangerous  ingredients  of  the  air  of  drains  and  cesspools,  and 
only  need  the  proper  surroundings  for  their  development.  They  may  be 
conveyed  also  by  milk  and  water.  Children  and  feeble  persons  are  most 
susceptible  to  their  influence. 

2  It  is  related  that  in  the  Scilly  Isles,  for  ten  consecutive  years,  there  was 
not  a  death  from,  and  only  mild  cases  if  any  at  all  of,  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
or  small  pox,  though  such  diseases  were  very  prevalent  upon  the  mainland, 
with  which  there  was  little  communication, 

3  In  an  experiment  by  Dr.  Hammond,  a  mouse  confined  in  an  atmosphere 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  breathed  with  difficulty.  When  some  of  the  organic  mat- 
ter was  removed  from  the  atmosphere,  although  the  air  was  still  loaded  with 
carbonic  acid,  the  mouse  breathed  more  freely. 


206  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

close  quarters,  and  the  condition   produced  is  known  as 
ochlesis  or  "  crowd  poisoning,''^ 

The  history  of  the  past  gives  fearful  instances  of  such 
poisoning,  but  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  it  is  still  to  be 
found  in  many  tenement  and  cheap  lodging  houses,  in  the 
holds  of  some  emigrant  vessels,  in  overcrowded  schools, 
churches,  and  theatres,  and  especially  in  cheap  places  of 
amusement,  (a.)  Formerly,  overcrowding  with  its  con- 
sequent filth  was  the  cause  of  many  deaths  from  jail, 
ship,  or  typhus  fever ;  and  it  is  still  the  prolific  source 
of  many  subtle  diseases,  especially  in  cities  and  large 
towns.  (5.) 

285.  The  term  malaria  literally  means  "  bad  air,"  but 
it  is  commonly  applied  to  impure  air  which  is  capable  of 
producing  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers,  and  to- 
discomfort  attended  by  more  or  less  intermitting  fever, 
or  to  certain  forms  of  nervous  disorders.  The  impurities 
consist  of  exhalations  from  vegetable  matter  in  process 
of  decay.  The  malarial  poison  emanates  mainly  at  night 
from  low  and  swampy  regions,  when  the  water  in  ponds 
and  streams  is  stagnant,  or  where  the  vegetation  is  exposed 
to  the  heat  of  the  sun.^  (a.) 

286.  The  gases  which  most  often,  either  alone  or  in 
combination   with  suspended  matters,  make   air   impure 


1  The  deep  upturning  of  the  ground,  as  in  the  building  of  large  sewers,  and 
displacement  of  muddy  soil  to  construct  railroad  beds,  has  produced  malarial 
poison  in  localities  where  it  had  not  been  before.  In  a  malarial  region  it  is 
wise  not  to  venture  into  the  open  air  until  at  least  a  small  amount  of  food  has 
been  taken.    It  is  well  also  to  keep  in  motion  when  out  of  doors. 

The  Eucalyptus  tree  and  the  sun-flower,  on  accovmt  of  the  power  they  pos- 
sess of  absorbing  moisture  by  their  roots,  are  valuable  in  drying  the  soil,  and 
preventing  malaria.  Certain  very  malarious  districts  in  Italy,  near  Rome, 
have  been  rendered  healthy  by  the  Eucalyptus  tree. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  207 

and  dangerous   to   life,  are   carbonic  acid,   carbonic  oxide, 
illuminating  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  sewer  gas,- 

287.  Carbonic  acid,  or  carbonic  anhydride,  is  the  most 
constant  gaseous  impurity  in  the  atmosphere.  It  is  a 
heavy,  invisible  gas  resulting  from  the  combustion  of  all 
substances  containing  carbon,  from  tlie  decay  and  putre- 
faction of  all  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  from 
fermentation,  and  is  given  off  during  the  respiration  of 
animals.  In  nature  it  is  ordinarily  diffused  throughout 
the  atmosphere,  and  is  absorbed  by  trees  and  plants.  In 
them  the  gas  is  decomposed,  the  carbon  being  retained  by 
the  trees  and  plants  for.  their  growth,  while  the  oxygen  is 
returned  to  the  atmosphere.  That  there  is  a  compensat- 
ing interchange  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  between 
plants  and  animals  is  shown  in  a  well-arranged  aquarium. 
If  the  fishes  give  off  the  necessary  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  for  the  health  of  the  plants,  and  the  plants  furnish 
enough  oxygen  for  the  fishes,  there  will  be  little  need  of 
frequently  changing  the  water. 

Notwithstanding  the  diffusive  power  of  gases  and  the 
absorption  of  a  large  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  by  plants, 
it  occasionally  accumulates  in  such  quantities  in  various 
places  as  to  poison  the  atmosphere.  When  the  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere  is  in  excess,  as  in  foggy  weather,  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  may  increase  from  a  little  over 
three  to  eight  volumes  in  10,000.  In  damp  weather,  when 
the  leaves  are  wet,  its  absorption  by  them  is  retarded, 
and  it  accumulates  in  the  air.  In  manufacturing  districts 
the  accumulation  is  very  great.  When  generated  in  low, 
confined  places,  such  as  cellars,  beer  vats,  cesspools,  caves, 
and  mines,  it  may  be  retained  for  a  tii^e,  partly  by  its 
weight  and  partly  because  it  is  generated  faster  than  it 
can  be  diffused  in  the  places  in  which  it  is  generated,  ren- 


208  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

dering  the  air  therein,  especially  in  its  lower  stratum,  dan- 
gerous to  breathe  and  incapable  of  supporting  combustion. 
The  impurity  may  be  tested  by  the  going  out  of  a  lighted 
candle  on  its  introduction  into  the  impure  air.^  In  the 
"  Dog's  Grotto,"  near  Naples,  and  in  various  other  places, 
carbonic  acid  is  continually  generated.  Thus  accumu- 
lated, it  almost  instantly  kills  animals  and  plants  within 
the  reach  of  its  influence.  («.) 

288.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere 
can  be  quite  readily  determined,  and  its  presence  implies 
the  presence  also  of  other  impurities.  It  is  said  that  the 
odor  of  crowd  poison  becomes  generally  perceptible  when 
the  carbonic  acid  in  the  room  exceeds  six  parts  in  10,000 
volumes  of  air.  This  is  the  amount  mentioned  by  Dr. 
Parkes,  the  eminent  sanitarian,  as  the  "  limit  of  permis- 
sible impurity,"  yet  a  much  larger  amount  is  often  found 
in  the  air  of  houses,  schools,  etc.  But  though  the  odor 
of  crowd  poison  be  perceptible,  carbonic  acid  itself  has  no 
odor.  Usually,  therefore,  its  subtle  effects  are  upon  us 
before  any  warning  has  been  given.  It  accumulates  in 
houses  not  well  aired,  from  illuminating  gas,  lamps,  fur- 
naces, stoves,  decaying  vegetables  and  wood,  and  from  our 
own  breathing,  (a.)  Th^  results  of  breathing  it  in  any 
considerable  quantity  for  a  length  of  time  are  headache, 
dullness,  giddiness,  nausea,  chilliness,  and  even  uncon- 
sciousness and  death.  It  is  estimated  that  in  general  one 
per  cent  causes  distress,  four  per  cent  renders  air  danger- 
ous, while  ten  per  cent  destroys  life. 

1  Recently,  in  one  of  our  large  cities,  in  a  house  which  had  been  shut  up  for 
the  summer,  several  members  of  the  family  were  taken  sick  soon  after  they 
reached  home,  and  twf)  died.  The  local  health  authorities,  in  the  examina- 
tion of  the  house,  found  that,  in  the  unventilated  cellar,  a  candle  would  not 
burn  .  .  .  "  Choke  damp  "  is  the  term  given  by  miners  to  the  carbonic  acid 
generated  in  mines. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  209 

289.  A  much  more  poisonous  gas  than  carbonic  acid  is 
carbonic  oxide  or  carbon  protoxide^  for  it  not  only  robs  the 
air  of  oxygen,  but  it  destroys  the  blood  globules,  and  its 
evil  effects  are  not  readily  dissipated  by  fresh  air,  as  is  the 
case  with  carbonic  acid.  It  is  colorless,  has  but  little,  if 
any,  odor,  and  is  often  found  with  carbonic  acid.  It  re- 
sults from  imperfect  combustion,  and  may  pass  through 
ill-fitting  joints  of  furnaces  and  stoves,  and,  it  is  said, 
through  the  cast  iron  itself  when  it  is  very  hot.  This  is 
more  likely  to  happen  when  the  supply  of  cold  air  is 
insufficient,  or  the  escape  of  the  products  of  combustion 
is  largely  prevented  by  smoke-pipes  that  are  too  small,  or 
by  the  dampers.  A  stove  or  furnace  should  therefore  be 
so  large  that  it  can  warm  the  room  without  being  itself 
very  hot.  Smoke-pipes  should  be  large,  and  without 
dampers.  More  coal  will  thus  be  consumed,  but  the  dan- 
ger will  be  lessened.^  Combined  with  sulphur  compounds 
in  the  imperfect  combustion  of  coal,  carbonic  oxide  has 
the  peculiarly  disagreeable  odor  known  as  that  of  "  stove 
gas " ;  but  being  odorless,  when  not  combined,  it  may 
slowly  insinuate  itself  into  a  room,  and  gradually  under- 
mine the  health ;  whereas  "  stove  gas  "  is  irritating  to  the 
nostrils  and  throat,  causing  dryness,  constriction,  and  a 
disagreeable  smell  and  taste. ^ 

290.  Marsh  gas^^  so  called  because  in  hot  weather  it 
may  be  evolved  from  the  putrefaction  of  vegetable  matter 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  stagnant  pools,  is  the  same 

1  Some  one  has  said,  "  It  needs  a  philosopher  to  run  a  furnace  properly." 

2  Recently,  two  ladies  having  sat  in  a  room  for  an  hour  or  two  sewing,  be- 
gan to  feel  dizzy,  and  to  tremble  so  persistenly,  that  sewing  was  dispensed 
with.  While  wondering  what  it  meant,  one  became  unconscious  and  the  other 
nearly  so.  A  gentleman  entering  the  room  perceived  the  odor  of  coal  gas 
which  had  not  been  noticed  by  the  ladies,  and,  on  examination,  found  that 
the  damper  in  the  smoke-pipe  had  fallen  so  as  to  stop  the  escape  of  gas. 

3  Now  termed  methyl  hydride. 


210  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

as  the  "  fire  damp  "  of  the  coal  mines.  It  constitutes  a 
considerable  portion  of  illuminating  gas  made  by  distilling 
coal.  It  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and  is 
colorless,  explosive,  and  poisonous. 

291.  Illuminating  gas^  as  ordinarily  delivered  to  the 
consumer,  is  mainly  a  mixture  of  marsh  gas  (ab.out  one- 
third),  hydrogen,  and  carbon  protoxide.  The  very  best 
kind  of  illuminating  gas  poisons  the  air  into  which  it  may 
escape ;  but  if  the  gas  has  not  been  thoroughly  purified,  it 
contains  other  and  much  more  poisonous  ingredients  than 
those  already  named.  The  old,  the  very  young,  and  all 
whose  sense  of  smell  is  not  acute,  may  be  gradually  poi- 
soned by  the  slow  escape  of  gas  from  a  leaky  gas  pipe,  with- 
out perceiving  the  odor  of  the  gas.^ 

292.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen^  or  hydrogen  sulphide,  is  a 
colorless  gas,  with  the  odor  of  putrefying  eggs.  It  is  very 
poisonous.  When  breathed  in  a  pure  state,  it  quickly 
proves  fatal,  destroying  the  blood  globules,  and  is  still 
dangerous  even  when  diluted  with  atmospheric  air.^  In 
houses  and  other  buildings  it  emanates  from  decomposing 
refuse  in  garbage  receptacles,  from  cesspools  and  drains, 
and  is  a  component  of  sewer  gas. 

293.  Sewer  ga%?  especially  of  late  years,  has  been  held 
responsible  for  much  of  the  sickness  in  houses  connected 
with   drains   and   sewers.     "Sewer-gas   poisoning,"  from 

1  "  To  detect  leaks  in  gas  pipes,  apply  soap  suds  to  the  suspected  leaky  joint. 
The  formation  of  bubbles  will  show  an  escape.  This  is  safer  than  trying  the 
joint  with  a  lighted  match.  If  the  leak  occur  in  the  branch  of  a  bracket  or 
chandelier,  it  is  repaired  by  soldering  with  plumber's  fine  solder  ;  if  it  be  a 
very  small  one,  heat  the  piece  first  with  a  spirit  lamp,  and  fill  the  aperture 
with  cement."  —  The  Sanitarian. 

2  ^^jjth  part  in  the  air  is  sufficient  to  kill  a  mouse. 

3  Probably  a  compound  of  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
ammonium  sulphide,  and  other  substances,  and  containing  disease  germs. 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  211 

defective  plumbing  of  houses  and  insufficient  airing  of 
the  sewers,  undoubtedly  exists,  but  the  plumber  is  fre- 
quently blamed  for  sickness  which  is  due  to  other  causes. 
Still,  odorless  and  poisonous  sewer  gas  may  escape  into 
a  room  without  its  presence  being  known,  or  it  may  have 
a  faint,  sickly  odor,  or  an  odor  like  that  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  depending  on  the  constituents  of  the  gas,  and 
may  lower  the  vitality,  thus  making  us  susceptible  to  dis- 
ease. Its  presence  should  be  excluded  by  well-ventilated 
sewers,  and  drains  with  tight  joints ;  the  pipes,  closets,  and 
basins  should  be  so  placed  that,  if  a  leak  occurs,  it  will 
not  imperil  the  health  of  the  inmates  of  the  house.^ 

294.  Sometimes  the  air  in  houses  is  "  devitalized,"  or 
robbed  of  its  life-sustaining  properties  by  other  means 
than  by  poisonous  gases ;  viz.,  by  a  mixture  with  the 
emanations  from  decaying  lumber  in  cellars,  from  musty 
clothes  stored  in  closets,  from  poisonous  wall  papers  (a.), 
or  decomposing  paste  between  the  layers  of  wall  paper, 
from  decomposing  food  in  pantries,  from  tobacco  smoke, 
etc.  (6.)  Sometimes  houses  built  upon  ground  made 
by  filling  in  depressions  with  dirt,  ashes,  and  decaying 
animal  and  vegetable  matter,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  are 
permeated  by  deleterious  gases,  which  find  their  way  into 
them  through  cellar  walls  and  floors,  especially  in  winter, 
when  the  furnace  and  other  fires  in  the  houses  create  a 

1  A  refrigerator  connected  with  the  sewer  leads  to  the  tainting  of  articles 
kept  in  it.  Waste  water  pipes  from  roofs  connecting  with  the  sewer  may  con- 
vey sewer  gas  into  the  upper  part  of  the  house  if  these  pipes  open  under  win- 
dows, as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  mansard  roofs.  Occasionally,  rats  gnaw 
through  lead  pipes,  and  thus  sewer  gas  escapes  into  houses ;  or  the  roots  of  trees 
penetrate  faulty  joints  of  drain  pipe.  Workmen  have  lost  their  lives  in  the 
opening  of  old  cesspools,  when  thecontents  were  stirred;  though,  hefore  that 
operation,  a  candle  would  burn  if  lowered  in  the  vat.  During  and  after  heavy 
rains,  swollen  rivers  and  streams  often  prevent  sewage  from  escaping  into 
them,  and  sewer  gas  "backs  up"  into  houses,  causing  discomfort  and 
sickness. 


21 2  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

draught.     In  such  cases  the  inmates  suffer  after  the  man- 
ner of  those  afflicted  with  malarial  poison. ^ 

295.  It  has  been  shown  by  Pettenkofer  and  others  that 
bricks,  ordinary  mortar,  cement,  and  sandstone  are  perme- 
able by  air  and  moisture?  Moisture  also  collects  upon  the 
walls  of  new  houses,  or  those  in  damp  situations,  and  is  a 
source  of  disease,  (a.)  Mr.  Chadwick  states  that  houses 
newly  built  should  not  be  occupied  as  dwellings  until  at 
least  nine  months  after  their  completion,  in  order  that  the 
mortar,  cement,  etc.,  may  become  thoroughly  dry.  It  is 
also  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  the  ground  upon 
which  houses  are  built  should  be  thoroughly  drained  and 
dry,  else  the  dampness  will  be  promotive  of  consumption, 
rheumatism,  and  other  severe  affections.^     Harmful  gases 

1  Authorities  say  that  new  ground  should  not  he  huilt  upon  until  after 
three  years. 

2  "  A  remarkable  case  in  a  London  house  has  come  to  my  knowledge,  which 
gives  a  distinct  proof  of  the  much  greater  passage  of  gas  through  the  walls  in 
winter  than  summer.  A  small  room  occasionally  used  was  noticed  sometimes 
to  have  an  unbearably  bad  smell.  This  was  never  noticed  in  summer,  nor  in 
winter,  unless  a  fire  was  lighted  in  the  room.  The  drainage  was  suspected 
and  examined,  but  was  found  perfect  ;  yet  here  was  this  extraordinarily  foul 
air  making  its  way  into  the  room  whenever  the  interior  was  warm  and  the  ex- 
terior cold.  The  cause  was  a  dust  bin  built  against  one  of  the  walls,  and  the 
filtration  of  the  air  through  this  and  the  house  wall  into  the  room."  —  Air  and 
its  relations  to  life.    Hartley. 

8  Sand  absorbs  and  retains  but  little  water;  but  clayey  soil,  ten  to  twenty 
times  as  much  as  sand  ;  while  rich  earth  absorbs  and  retains,  it  is  said,  forty 
or  fifty  times  as  much.  Hard,  rocky  soils  allow  but  little  water  to  pass  through 
them.  An  ideal  building  site  is  upon  the  side  of  a  gently  sloping  hill  (with  a 
rocky  and  sandy  soil),  looking  towards  the  south,  not  near  a  marsh  or  sluggish 
stream,  and  with  good  drinking  water,  and  enough  trees  to  protect  it  from  the 
strong  sunlight,  and  to  absorb  any  excess  of  moisture  there  may  be  in  the  soil. 
On  the  other  hand,  very  many  trees,  by  affording  too  much  shade,  make  the 
surroundings  of  a  house  damp,  shut  out  sun-light,  and  assist  in  the  production 
of  malaria.  It  is  of  considerable  importance  that  the  trees  should  be  of  such 
kinds  as  to  aflford  ample  shade,  and  at  the  same  time  have  no  unpleasant  odor. 
The  trees  which  best  meet  these  requirements,  and  that  are  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
are  the  oak,  elm,  maple,  tulip  tree,  ash,  mulberry,  linden,  horse  chestnut,  and 
walnut. 


AIK.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  213 

also  may  be  conveyed  by  even  the  best  soil  from  leaky 
drains,  sewers,  gas  pipes,  and  other  sources  of  impurities. 
Pettenkofer  mentions  an  instance  of  the  death  of  one  of 
the  inmates  of  a  house  from  illuminating  gas  from  a  leaky 
pipe,  which  had  penetrated  through  the  earth  a  distance 
of  twenty  feet  into  the  basement. 

296.  Cowper  says,  "  God  made  the  country,  and  man 
made  the  town,"  and  undoubtedly  the  air  is  very  pure 
in  those  country  districts  where  the  inhabitants  are  not 
crowded  together ;  where  there  are  no  factories  or  nuis- 
ances, no  decomposing  garbage,  or  other  refuse ;  where  the 
water  supply  is  abundant,  and  no  stagnant  water  exists ; 
where  the  houses  are  well  drained,  and  so  placed  that  the 
sunlight  enters  the  rooms;  and  where  the  dwellings  and 
outhouses  are  at  least  one  hundred  feet  apart.  But  where 
these  conditions  do  not  exist,  the  better  portions  of  most 
towns  and  cities  are  preferable.  Moreover,  in  the  country 
there  are  not  so  apt  to  be  health  boards  and  sanitary 
associations  to  remedy  evils.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  numerous  overcrowded  and 
dirty  tenement  houses  in  the  large  cities  are  productive 
of  very  great  mortality,  and  are  often  sources  of  danger  to 
the  better  portions,  being  the  starting-points  of  infectious 
diseases,  low  forms  of  fever,  etc.  Of  late  years  "model 
tenement  houses  "  have  been  erected  in  some  of  our  cities, 
in  which  overcrowding  and  uncleanliness  are  prohibited 
by  the  owners,  (a.) 

297.  The  various  impurities  in  the  air,  besides  taking 
the  place  of  oxygen,  irritate  the  air  passages  and  lungs,  or 

1  By  the  enlightened  and  active  work  of  such  bodies  much  good  has  been 
done.  By  proper  drainage  of  low,  swampy,  or  submerged  lands,  malarial  fevers 
have  been  "  crowded  out,"  and  the  soil  redeemed  for  cultivation,  or  for  build- 
ing purposes.  The  health  tracts  and  reports  published  by  the  above  organiza- 
tions contain  much  valuable  information. 


214  AIE.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

poison  the  blood  directly  by  being  absorbed  by  the  organs 
of  respiration.  Where  there  is  a  moderate  amount  of  im- 
purities, not  only  is  the  blood  rendered  less  pure,  but  the 
health  of  the  tissue  through  which  it  passes  is  lowered, 
all  the  vital  processes  are  depressed,  and  the  individual 
becomes  susceptible  to  contagion  and  infection.  In  a  man- 
ner not  yet  fully  comprehended,  emanations  from  organic 
matter  in  process  of  putrefaction  induce  typhoid  and  typhus 
fevers,  consumption,  and  other  grave  diseases.^  (a.) 

298.  Many  of  the  dangers  arising  from  impure  air  may 
be  obviated  by  suitable  ventilation  and  hj  purification  by 
means  of  chemicals. 

By  suitable  ventilation  is  meant  the  free  admixture  of 
outdoor  air  with  that  of  buildings  and  apartments,  but 
so  modified  as  to  temperature  and  velocity  of  current,  in 
its  admission  into  rooms,  that  "  draughts  "  are  prevented.^ 
Suitable  ventilation  should  take  place  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day.  The  airing  of  one  room  by  introducing  the  con- 
fined air  from  another  is  not  suitable  ventilation ;  neither 
is  it  right  to  exclude  from  our  sleeping-rooms  the  night 
air,  of  which  so  many  live  in  fear.  In  fact,  night  air 
generally  contains  less  carbonic  acid  than  day  air.  (a.) 
But  draughts  of  cold  air,  either  by  night  or  by  day,  are 
injurious  to  all,  and  especially  to  the  feeble,  the  young, 
and  the  old.  They  lower  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
and  induce  internal  congestions.  As  some  one  has  said, 
"a  cold  draught  of  air  cuts  like  a  knife."  ^ 

1  It  has  been  shown  that  what  will  poison  one  person  may  have  but  little 
effect  upon  another  less  susceptible.  There  are  some  people  who  seem  to 
"catch"  everything,  while  others  can  expose  themselves  to  impure  air  and 
sustain  no  apparent  injury.  In  cities,  noxious  gases  from  factories,  etc., 
sometimes  poison  susceptible  people,  and  yet  the  poison  may  not  be  detected 
by  the  chemist  or  microscopist. 

2  "If  cold  wind  reach  you  through  a  hole,  go  make  your  will  and  mind 
your  soul."  —  Old  Spanish  proverb. 


j^IK.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  216 

299.  The  velocity  of  the  air  current  may  be  somewhat 
diminished,  and  the  air  may  be  warmed  in  cold  weather 
by  causing  it  to  pass,  before  entering  rooms,  through  open- 
ings in  the  outer  and  inner  sashes  of  a  double  window, 
or  by  bringing  it  into  contact  with  heated  furnaces  and 
stoves,  through  their  air-chambers  or  flues,  or  by  its  passage 
through  one  or  more  layers  of  fine  wire  gauze,  woollen, 
cotton,  or  linen  cloth  fitted  in  frames  into  the  windows, 
or  arranged  as  screens  before  the  open  windows.  In  very 
warm  weather,  the  air  may  be  cooled  somewhat  by  sus- 
pending dampened  cloths  in  the  rooms,  or  by  causing  it 
to  pass  over  ice  in  the  lower  apartments  of  a  house,  and 
then  forcing  it  by  fans  or  engines  into  the  upper  rooms.^ 

300.  Appliances  for  the  free  passage  of  air  into  and  out 
of  rooms  are  known  as  ventilators?  These  differ  very 
much  in  structure  and  mode  of  action.  The  space  below 
the  decks  of  large  ships,  for  instance,  are  ventilated  by 
means  of  one  or  more  huge  "  air  shafts,"  having,  at  their 
upper  extremities,  wide-open  mouths,  so  arranged  that  they 
automatically  turn  to  or  from  the  wind.  Where  there  are 
two,  the  air  enters  one  and  ascends  with  the  heated  air 
from  the  cabins,  etc.,  through  the  other,  or  it  is  forced  in 
and  out  by  means  of  large  fans  or  engines.  In  a  similar 
manner  air  is  forced  into  tunnels,  caissons,  etc.  In  mines, 
ventilation  is  effected  by  building  fires  at  the  bottom  of 
one  shaft,  thus  sucking  in  the  outer  air  through  another 
shaft,  and  expelling  the  impure  air  through  the  shaft  at 
the  bottom  of  which  the  fire  is  built.^ 

1  The  late  President  Garfield's  room  was  made  comfortable  in  this  way 
during  his  last  illness. 

2  The  terms  natural  and  artificial  ventilation  are  often  used.  The  first 
refers  to  that  obtained  by  open  fire-places,  doors,  and  windows  ;  the  last,  to 
special  appliances. 

3  Sometimes  a  single  partitioned  shaft  is  made  to  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sult, the  fire  being  built  under  one  of  the  partitions  in  the  shaft. 


216  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

301.  In  dwelling-houses  and  other  buildings,  an  out- 
ward draught  of  air  is  created  in  smoke  pipes  and  chim- 
neys at  all  times,  but  especially  when  fires  are  burning 
in  the  grates,  stoves,  and  furnaces.  Hence,  in  very  cold 
weather,  and  if  the  wind  is  bloAving  very  hard,  sufficient 
air  for  ventilating  purposes  may  be  ''  sucked  in  "  through 
air-chambers  and  flues  of  furnaces,  or  by  the  sides  of  win- 
dow-sashes ;  but,  ordinarily,  it  is  necessary  to  admit  air  in 
larger  quantity,  (a.)  How  to  do  this  without  injurious 
draughts  is  a  difficult  problem  in  some  instances.  It  is 
sometimes  advised  that  a  room  having  but  one  window  be 
ventilated  by  opening  the  window  either  at  the  top  or  at 
the  top  and  bottom,  and  by  opening  a  door  into  a  hall  or 
passageway ;  or,  if  there  are  two  windows,  opening  one  at 
the  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom,  while  the  door  may 
or  may  not  be  shut.  Such  ventilation  is  attended  with 
draughts. 

A  safer  plan  is  to  admit  air  through  wire  gauze,  cotton 
cloth,  etc.,  as  before  described,  or  between  the  sashes  of 
one  or  more  windows,  where  the  sashes  meet,  by  placing 
under  the  lower  ones  boards  occupying  the  whole  width 
of  the  sash,  and  from  three  to  six  or  more  inches  wide, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  rooms  to  be  ventilated 
and  the  velocity  of  the  currents  of  air.^  '  The  air  thus 
passing  in  is  not  deflected  directly  downwards  upon  the 
occupants  of  the  room.  A  current  is  created  by  the  im- 
pure air  escaping  through  open  fire-places,  or  openings  in 
the  chimney .2 

1  A  simple  and  effectual  arrangement  is  that  of  Dr.  Keen;  viz.,  fastening 
' '  with  tacks  or  loops  a  piece  of  paper  or  cloth  across  the  lower  ten  or  twelve 
inches  of  the  window-frame,  and  then  raising  the  lower  sash  more  or  less,  ac- 
cording to  the  weather."  It  will  probably  occur  to  the  reader  that  the  cloth 
so  placed  may  he  suitably  ornamented  on  one  or  both  sides. 

2  Fire-places  should  not  be  entirely  closed  ;  neither  is  it  well  to  have  them 
so  large  and  open  that  a  great  draught  is  created,  thereby  drawing  the  air 


AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  217 

302.  Arnott's  automatic  chimney-place  ventilator,^  or 
the  revolving  metal  wheels  inserted  into  window  panes 
are  simple  and  effective  ventilators.  Air  may  also  be  ad- 
mitted through  small  diagonal  openings  in  the  window- 
sashes.  In  factories,  institutions,  schools,  public  ve- 
hicles, and  other  places  where  the  ventilation  is  to  be  pro- 
vided for  many  persons,  it  should  be  automatic;  for,  if 
regulated  by  the  varied  judgment  of  the  numerous  in- 
mates, it  will  prove  ineffective,  (a.) 

303.  All  houses  having  furnaces  should  have  roomy 
air-boxes  leading  from  the  outdoor  air  to  the  air-chambers 
of  the  furnaces.  If  possible,  the  air  should  be  drawn  from 
above  the  street  level,  in  order  to  be  comparatively  free 
from  dust  and  other  suspended  matters.^ 

304.  To  keep  the  air  in  a  proper  condition,  especially 
where  rooms  are  small  and  there  are  many  inmates,  is  a 
difficult  matter ;  for,  the  smaller  the  room,  and  the  larger 
the  number  of  inmates,  the  swifter  must  be  the  currents 
of  ventilating  air,  and  the  greater  the  danger  from  draughts. 
Hence,  estimates  of  the  necessary  amount  of  air  and  cubic 
space  which  each  person  requires  under  various  circum- 
stances have  been  made  by  sanitarians  as  guides  to  proper 
ventilation. 

too  strongly  out  of  the  room  and  too  much  heat  up  the  chimney.  Such  fire- 
places must  needs  consume  a  large  quantity  of  fuel  in  order  to  radiate  suflBl- 
cient  heat  to  be  equally  diffused  throughout  the  room.  The  open  fire-place 
stove,  or  "  fire  on  the  hearth,"  and  the  Franklin  stove  and  its  modification, 
with  their  outer  jackets  or  envelopes,  which  receive  and  warm  cold  air  as  it 
passes  through  them  into  rooms,  are  preferable  to  ordinary  stoves,  which  throw 
out  dry  and  superheated  air. 

1  A  valve  so  arranged  as  to  open  with  upward  currents  of  air  into  the  chim- 
ney, and  to  close  with  the  downward  currents. 

2  It  is  shameful  to  have  to  state  that,  at  the  present  day,  houses  are  some- 
times built  without  air-boxes,  or  with  boxes  that  open  into  cellars  instead  of 
out  of  doors.  Occasionally,  foul  air  is  sucked  into  apartments  from  cellars 
through  defective  air-boxes,  thereby  causing  much  sickness. 


218  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

305.  Dr.  Parkes  claims  that  a  complete  change  of  air 
three  or  four  times  per  hour  is  all  that  can  generally  be 
borne  without  the  sensation  of  draught.  If  the  cubic 
space  allowed  to  each  person  is  less  than  300  cubic  feet, 
and  there  is  no  adequate  ventilation,  the  danger  to  life  is 
great.  By  most  authorities,  600  cubic  feet  of  space  are 
considered  as  ordinarily  necessary  for  each  individual  in  a 
room  of  ordinary  size.  If  the  arrangements  for  ventilating 
are  very  poor,  from  750  to  1,000  feet  are  required.  In 
hospitals  and  factories,  especially  where  the  sources  of 
impurities  are  many,  from  2,000  to  3,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  are  said  to  be  necessary,  (^a.') 

306.  Very  often  disagreeable  odors  may  be  removed 
from  the  air  of  a  place,  or  the  poison  of  gases  lessened 
by  the  admission  of  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  which  is 
far  superior  to  smouldering  paper,  burning  coffee,  cologne 
water,  and  other  things  commonly  used  as  purifiers,  but 
which  act  only  as  deodorizers^  simply  replacing  one  odor 
with  another  that  is  stronger. 

It  often  becomes  necessary,  for  the  preservation  of  health, 
to  remove  impurities  or  bad  odors  in  the  atmosphere  by 
the  use  of  chemicals.  These  may  be  either  in  a  solid, 
liquid,  or  gaseous  form,  and  are  known  as  disinfectants. 
Some  of  these  act  as  antiseptics^  from  the  power  they 
possess  of  arresting  putrefaction  in  animal  and  vegetable 
matter,  and  of  preventing  the  development  of  disease 
germs.  Belonging  to  this  class  are  some  metallic  salts, 
especially  the  sulphates  and  chlorides  of  zinc  and  iron, 
together  with  chlorine  gas,  carbolic  acid,  and  thymol.^ 


1  One  part  of  thymol  to  1,000  of  water  checks  alcoholic  and  greatly  retards 
lactic  fermentation  and  putrefactive  decompositions.  It  has  the  agreeable 
odor  of  thyme,  is  less  poisonous  than  carbolic  acid,  and  is  ten  times  more 
powerful. 


AIR.  —  DISESTFECTION.  —  LIGHT.  219 

307.  Some  substances  act  as  absorbents  of  gaseous  ema- 
nations from  decomposing  bodies.  Charcoal  and  lime  are 
of  this  class.  The  coating  of  .walls,  especially  of  cellars, 
with  lime  wash  is  a  useful  method  of  sweetening  the  at- 
mosphere, and  should  be  frequently  repeated. 

308.  A  third  class  of  disinfectants  acts  chemically  upon 
the  results  of  decay,  and  thus  renders  them  harmless.  Chlo- 
rine (in  the  form  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  a  solution  of  chlo- 
rinated soda),  nitrate  of  lead,  and  sulphurous  acid  gas  from 
burning  sulphur,  belong  to  this  class ;  they  rid  the  air  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  destroy  bacteria.  Cold  arrests 
putrefaction,  but  does  not  destroy  germs.  Heat  200°  to 
250°  F.  is  a  powerful  disinfectant,  and  one  capable  of 
destroying  all  "  disease  germs."  (a.) 

309.  Light.  .  In  addition  to  an  abundance  of  air  of 
the  right  kind,  animals,  like  vegetables,  need  sunlight. 
Without  this  the  blood  is  impoverished,  the  skin  and 
muscles  grow  pale,  and  vital  energy  is  diminished,  (a.) 
Secluded  from  the  light,  human  beings  become  pale  and 
sickly,  just  as  plants  do  in  cellars ;  and,  like  plants,  will 
grow  stronger  and  healthier  on  removal  into  the  light. 

During  the  prevalence  of  epidemics  in  some  of  our 
Southern  cities,  it  was  noticed  that  there  was  more  sickness 
on  the  shady  than  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  streets.  Houses 
should  be  so  constructed  that  the  sun  can  shine  into  the 
various  rooms  at  some  time  within  each  twenty-four  hours. 
But  just  as  we  have  found  to^  be  the  case  with  the  other 
vital  requisities  of  man,  so  there  may  be  an  excess  of 
lights  and  of  its  accompanying  heat.  Too  great  exposure, 
in  warm  weather,  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  may 
induce  sunstroke.  Even  in  the  frigid  zone,  the  glare  of 
the  light  on  the  snowy  landscape  is  attended  with  danger 
to  the  sight,  —  a  danger  which  is  also  incurred  by  those 


220  AIR.  —  DISINFECTION.  —  LIGHT. 

who  have  the  sun's  rays  reflected  upon  them  from  white 
sand  and  other  reflecting  objects.^ 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  thickness  of  the  atmosphere  ?     What  its  pressure  and 

the  importance  of  it?     Illustrate. 

2.  What  are  the  essential  ingredients  of  the  atmosphere  ? 

3.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  relative  proportions  and  uses  of  nitrogen 

and  oxygen  ? 

4.  What  of  ozone?     What  other  mgredients  are  found  in  air? 

5.  Of  what  does  the  dust  in  the  air  consist,  and  from  what  sources 

does  it  come  ? 

6.  Who  should  protect  themselves  from  its  evil  effects,  and  how  ? 

7.  What  is  to  be  said  of  "disease  germs  "  and  of  their  development? 

8.  What  of  the  organic  nitrogenous  matters  thrown  off  by  the  lungs 

and  their  effects  ? 

9.  To  what  is  the  term  malaria  applied,  and  what  are  some  of  the 

causes  of  malaria  ? 

10.  W^hat  gases  corrupt  the  atmosphere,  and  which  one  is  constantly 

present  therein  ? 

11.  From  whence  does  the  atmosphere  derive  its  carbonic  acid  or  car- 

bonic anhydride,  and  why  should  so  poisonous  a  gas  be  an  essen- 
tial ingredient  of  the  atmosphere  ? 

12.  When  and  where  is  it  apt  to  be  in  excess,  and  what  are  the  effects  ? 

13.  What  is  to  be  said  of  carbonic  oxide  ?  of  marsh  gas?  of  illuminat- 

ing gas  ?   of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ?   of  sewer  gas  ? 

14.  What  other  emanations  than  the  above  gases  devitalize  the  air? 

15.  What  is  to  be  said  of  damp  building-sites  and  of  leaky  drains  and 

gas  pipes  ? 

16.  State  the  relative  advantages  of  city  and  country  life. 

17.  What  are  the  effects  of  an  impure  atmosphere  upon  the  health, 

and  how  may  they  be  obviated?    Illustrate  as  to  ventilation ; 
also  as  to  the  use  of  chemicals. 

18.  What  effects  follow  a  deprivation  of  light  ?    What  its  excess? 

1  "  To  obviate  the  dangers  of  an  excess  of  light,  nature  carpets  the  earth 
with  green,  and  either  vaults  the  heavens  with  hhie,  or  draws  over  tliem  lier 
gray  curtain  of  cloud,  and  at  proper  intervals  spreads  over  us  the  black  pail 
of  night,  bringing  with  it  refreshment  and  rest." 


ANALYSIS. 


221 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    THIRTEENTH  CHAPTER. 


ATMOSPHERIC    AIR. 


I.  Pressure. 


r  Oxygen. 

II.  Essential  Composition  \  JJitrogen. 

I  Carbonic  acid. 
[  Watery  vapor. 


in.  Irregular 
Composition 


'  Abnormal  intermixture  of  essential  components. 

Suspended  (  Dust, 
matters     \  Disease  germs. 


Intermixture  of 
non-essential 
components 


Gaseous 
matters 


'Carbonic  oxide. 

Sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen. 

Illuminating  gas. 
,  Sewer  gas,  etc. 


IV.  Effects  of  Impure  Air. 


V.  Purification  |  X-  w^'I- ""• 
;  Disinfection. 


LIGHT. 

I.  Effects  of  a  Sufficient  Amount. 
II.  Effects  of  an  Excess. 


222 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


CER 


SX" 


Fig.  66. 

Posterior  view  of  the  spinal  cord,  —  a  portion  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebeHura, 
and  some  of  the  nerves  of  the  cerebro-spinal  system.  On  the  left  side  of  the 
body  some  of  the  tissues  are  removed  to  shoAv  the  deeper  nerves,  while  the 
right  side  shows  certain  superficial  ones.  —  OE,  cerebrum;  CER,  cerebellum; 
B,  nerves  distributed  to  the  arm;  SC,  spinal  cord;  S2^,  sciatic  nerve. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

310.  Some  of  the  processes  already  studied,  viz.,  Diges- 
tion, Circulation,  Absorption,  and  Respiration,  are  com- 
mon to  both  animals  and  vegetables ;  but  the  processes  by 
which  consciousness,  will-power,  voluntary  motion,  sight, 
hearing,  etc.,  are  accomplished,  are,  as  far  as  at  present 
known,  peculiar  to  animals.  One  animal  is  superior  to 
another  in  proportion  to  the  number  and  development  of 
these  functions.  In  man,  their  number  is  the  greatest, 
and  their  development  the  highest,  so  that  man  maintains 
supremacy  over  all  other  forms  of  creation. 

311.  In  health,  all  the  organs  of  the  human  body 
possess  a  peculiar  property  known  as  irritability^^  which 
enables  each  one  to  perform  its  function  at  the  right  time 
in  the  right  way,  and  in  accord  with  the  functions  of 
other  organs.  Thus,  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  whenever 
any  substance  is  introduced  into  the  stomach,  and  the 
number  of  the  pulsations  of  the  heart  bears  a  definite  rela- 
tion to  the  frequency  of  the  respiratory  movements.  This 
irritability  or  normal  excitability  of  tissues,  together  with 
the  performance  of  all  vital  functions,  is  made  possible  by 
the  nervous  system^  through  which  all  impressions  are  re- 
ceived, and  by  means  of  which  motion,  sensation,  thought, 

1  "Irritability  {irrito,\  provoke).  In  Physiology,  this  word  signifies  the 
power  of  responding  to  a  stimulus,  as  exemplified  by  the  contractility  of  mus- 
cular tissue.  In  medicine,  irritability  implies  an  undue  excitability  of  an 
organ  or  tissue,  from  disease  or  disorder,  such  as  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord, 
stomach,  eye,  or  bladder.' '  —  Dictionary  of  Medicine.    Quain. 


224  THE  KERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

etc.,  are  produced.  This  system  regulates  all  the  move- 
ments of  the  body,  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  and 
all  the  processes,  and  harmonizes  the  functions  of  the 
various  organs. 

312.  The  healthy  human  body  may  be  likened  to  a 
well-ordered  community,  in  which  various  industries  are 
carried  on,  each  in  a  different  way,  but  all  conducive  to 
the  general  good,  and  controlled  by  one  official  head  and 
his  subordinates.  The  various  organs  of  the  body  are 
connected  with  the  centre  of  operations,  the  brain,  by 
means  of  nerves,  which  are  like  so  many  electric  wires 
running  to  and  from  the  seat  of  government  of  the  com- 
munity. By  this  arrangement,  notice  of  any  disturbance 
is  immediately  communicated  to  "  headquarters,"  and  the 
remedy  promptly  furnished.  The  importance  of  the  ner- 
vous system  with  its  harmonizing  influence  is  best  appre- 
ciated when  we  witness  the  results  of  disturbances  therein, 
such  as  irregular  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  extremities 
in  spasms  and  cramps,  fluttering  of  the  heart,  convul- 
sions, etc. 

313.  The  general  arrangement  and  structure  of  the  ner- 
vous system  is  as  follows  :  — 

Owing  to  the  difference  in  location  and  function  of  its 
various  parts,  there  are  two  divisions  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem ;  viz.,  the  cerebrospinal  nervous  system^  and  the  sym- 
pathetic or  ganglionic  nervous  system}  The  first-named 
division  includes  all  that  portion  of  the  nervous  system 
contained  within  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  spinal  canal ; 

1  At  one  time  it  was  believed  that  one  part  of  tiie  body  became  diseased 
through  "sympathy"  with  another  part.  As  the  second  of  the  above-named 
divisions  of  the  nervous  system  is  largely  responsible  for  the  spread  of  disor- 
der and  disease,  it  has  been  called  "  sympathetic  "  in  deference  to  the  old  be- 
lief. The  term  ganf/lionic  refers  to  the  fact  that  this  division  of  the  nervous 
system  is  composed  largely  of  ganglia  or  masses  of  gray  nervous  matter. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  225 

viz.,  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  together  with  the 
nerves  which  branch  off  from  each.  This  system  presides 
over  the  functions  of  animal  life  as  volition,  sensation,  etc. 
The  second-named  division,  or  the  sympathetic  system^ 
includes  all  that  portion  of  the  nervous  system  located,  in 
the  main,  in  the  thoracic,  abdominal,  and  pelvic  cavities, 
and  which  is  distributed  to  the  internal  organs.  Its  spe- 
cial function  is  the  regulation  of  involuntary  processes,  as 
growth  and  nutrition. 

314.  The  nervous  system,  whether  simple  in  arrange- 
ment, as  in  the  star-fish,  or  more  complicated,  as  in  the 
higher  animals  and  man,  consists  of  two  different  kinds  of 
tissue,  the  one  ivliite  and  the  other  gray.  These  differ 
from  each  other  not  only  in  color,  but  in  structure  and 
mode  of  action.  The  ^v}lite  matter  constitutes  the  bulk 
of  the  nervous  tissue,  and  is  in  large  quantity  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  spinal  cord  and  in  the  interior  and  lower  sur- 
face of  the  brain.  To  the  unaided  eye,  it  seems  to  be  but 
a  mass  of  white,  semi-solid  material.  In  reality,  it  is  min- 
gled with  delicate  and  transparent  connective  tissue,  so 
as  to  form  slender  threads,  which,  for  the  most  part,  lie 
parallel  to  each  other.  They  are  termed  nervous  fila- 
ments, or  nerve  fibres.  Nervous  filaments  are  cylindrical 
and  of  very  small  diameter.^  Running  longitudinally 
through  the  centre  of  each  is  a  rounded,  semi-transparent 
band  of  gray  color,  known  as  the  ''axis  cylinder,"  whicli 
is  the  essential  element  of  the  nerve  fibre.  Through  it 
the  nerve  current  is  transmitted.  The  filaments  are  dis- 
tributed to  all  the  tissues,  but  in  a  varying  degree.  As 
they  emerge  from  the  tissues,  they  come  together  to  form 
bundles.       These    in  turn    unite  with  other  similar  bun- 


1  They  vary  in  size  from  ^^Vo  ot  an  inch  in  nerves  to  x (jj o o  of  an  inch  in 
the  brain. 


226 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


dies,  and  the  biiiulles,  which  are  large  enough  to  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye,  are  called  nerves} 

315.  Nerves  are  of  various  sizes,^  and  are  invested 
with  a  sheath  termed  the  neurilemma.  Each  bundle  of 
filaments  is  similarly  sheathed,  but  with  more  delicate 
connective    tissue.      In   all   of  the  sheaths  are  capillary 


Fig.  67.  (Leidt.) 
Mode  of  branching  of  nerves.—  1, 2,  two 
bundles  of  nerve  fibres ;  3,  a  branch 
of  three  fibres  ;  4,  branch  of  two 
fibres  ;  5,  6,  branches  of  single 
fibres  ;  7,  decussation  between  two 
nerves. 


Fig.  68.    (Gray.) 

Nerve  cells  from  spinal  cord. 

Magnified. 


blood-vessels.  Though  the  nerve  fibres  are  thus  closely 
connected  together,  each  filament  acts  independently  of 
every  other.     When  nerves  are  said  therefore  either  to 


1  From  the  Greek  neuron.  The  structure  of  a  nerve  is  similar  to  that  of 
a  string  or  cable,  the  individual  threads  or  wires  being  united  into  strands, 
and  the  strands  into  the  string  or  cable  itself.  The  nervous  filaments  are  not 
twisted  as  the  threads  and  wires  generally  are  in  strings  and  cables;  but,  like 
the  wires  in  the  largest  cables  of  suspension  bridges,  they  are  for  the  most  part 
parallel  to  each  other,  each  being  separate  from  its  beginning  to  its  end. 

~  The  sciatic  nerves,  located  in  the  back  part  of  the  thighs,  are  the  largest 
in  the  body,  viz.,  as  large  in  circumference  as  the  tip  of  the  little  finger  of  the 
average  adult.  That  painful  affection  known  as  "  sciatica  "  results  from  some 
irritation  of  the  sciatic  nerve. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  227 

"branch,"  or  to  "decussate"  (i.e.^  cross  each  other),  it  is 
some  of  the  filaments  of  which  the  nerves  are  composed 
which  leave  the  nerves  and  branch  off  or  cross  each  other. 
(Fig.  67.)  The  sole  funetio7i  of  nerves  is  to  transmit  nervous 
force  and  impressions, 

316.  The  gray  matter  of  the  nervous  system  is  of  an 
ashen-gray  color,  and  constitutes  the  external  or  con- 
voluted layer  of  the  brain,  various  deposits  in  the  centre 
of  the  brain  and  the  centre  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  the 
masses  called  ganglia  ^  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 
Under  the  microscope,  this  substance  is  seen  to  consist 
mainly  of  cells,  known  as  nerve  cells,  which  are  intermin- 
gled with  nervous  filaments  and  connective  tissue.  These 
cells  vary  in  form  and  also  in  size.^  Some  of  them  have 
long  projections,  which  it  is  believed,  for  the  most  part, 
connect  directly  with  the  filaments  of  the  nerves.  Every 
collection  of  gray  matter,  whatever  its  situation  or  size, 
is  a  nerve  centre.  Its  function  is  to  receive  nervous  im- 
pressions and  to  originate  and  impart  nervous  force,  which 
are  conveyed  to  and  from  the  nerve  centres  by  means  of 
nerves.   («.) 

31 7.  The  brain  is  the  great  mass  of  nerve  tissue  which 
occupies  the  cranial  cavity.  It  consists  of  three  parts ; 
viz. :  first,  the  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  which  is  the 
largest,  and  occupies  the  upper,  front,  middle,  and  back 
portion  of  the  cranial  cavity ;  next,  the  cerebellum,  or  "little 
brain,"  which  about  fills  the  lower  and  back  portion  of 
the  cavity  ;  and,  thirdly,  the  medulla  oblongata,^  which  is 
the  smallest  part,  and  is  the  broadened  commencement  of 
the  spinal  cord,  lying  below  and  in  front  of  the  cerebellum. 
(Fig.  69.) 

1  From  the  Greek  word  ganglion,  meaning  a  knot. 

2  Viz.,  from  4Fotr  to  3^0  of  an  inch. 

3  Sometinie.s  failed  the  "  oblong  cord." 


228  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

318.  Both  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  are  divided 
by  a  longitudinal  furrow  into  two  portions,  riglit  and  left. 
Both,  being  soft  and  easily  pressed  out  of  shape,  are  protec- 
ted from  the  dangers  of  shock,  and  of  friction  against  their 
strong,  bony  encasements,  by  coverings  called  meninges  or 
membranes^  by  connective  tissue,  and  by  fluid  between 
certain  of  the  membranes.     The  outermost  membrane,  the 


-  CE 


CER 


Fig.  69. 

Vertical  section  of  brain.  — CE,  cerebrum,  left  hemisphere;  CER,  cerebellum,  left 

portion;  MO,  medulla  oblongata;  SC,  spinal  cord;  OP,  optic  nerve. 

dura  mater ^  is  brown,  thick,  and  very  resisting.  It  lines  the 
cranial  cavity  and  the  spinal  canal,  and  has  various  shelf- 
like expansions  in  the  former  for  the  support  of  different 
portions  of  the  brain.^  Underneath  the  dura  mater  is  the 
arachnoid^  a  closed  sac  of   serous  membrane  (similar  in 

1  "'Hard  mother  '  ;  called  dura  because  of  its  great  resistance,  and  mater 
because  it  was  believed  to  give  rise  to  every  membrane  of  the  body."  — 
Med.  Diet.    Dungleson. 

*  2  A  sickle-like  projection  inward,  in  the  longitudinal  fissure  of  the  brain,  a 
horizontal  partition  between  cerebrum  and  cerebellum,  etc. 

3  A  name  originally  applied  to  delicate  membranes  resembling  spiders'  webs. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  220 

structure  to  the  pericardial  and  pleural  sacs),  which  secretes 
an  albuminous,  lubricating  fluid.  The  very  considerable 
protection  and  freedom  of  movement  afforded  to  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  by  this  sac,  with  its  soft  and  yielding 
liquid  contents,  is  quite  evident.  Closely  adherent  to  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  dipping  down  into  the  furrows, 
is  the  third  and  last  covering,  the  pia  mater^  which  is  not 
in  reality  a  membrane,  but  a  fine  net-work  of  capillary 
blood-vessels,  in  the  meshes  of  a  delicate  connective  tissue. 
Through  these  capillaries,  and  the  large  blood-vessels 
which  enter  at  its  base,  the  brain  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  blood.  Usually,  it  has  not  more  than  one-fortieth  of  the 
weight  of  the  body,  yet  it  receives  about  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  volume  of  the  blood.  This  large  proportion  of 
blood  indicates  that  the  brain  is  intended  for  active  work, 
but,  as  in  other  organs,  its  working  capacity  is  dependent 
not  only  upon  the  quantity,  but  also  upon  the  quality,  of 
the  blood  which  it  receives. 

319.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  brain  depend  somewhat 
on  the  size  of  the  individual,  but  they  also  bear  consid- 
erable relation  to  his  intellectual  capacity,  (a.)  In  the 
lower  animals,  the  cerebellum  and  the  ganglia  at  the  base 
of  the  brain  are  the  largest,  but  in  the  higher  animals  and 
man,  the  cerebrum,  as  a  rule,  increases  in  size  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  intelligence.  In  man,  the  size  is  very  much 
greater  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  entire  body  than  in 
any  of  the  lower  animals.  The  quality  of  the  brain  mate- 
rial is  also  undoubtedly  a  matter  of  importance,  for  the 
brains  of  some  very  intelligent  persons  have  been  found 
to  be  comparatively  small. 

320.  The  brain  proper,  or  cerebrum^  is  rounded  upon 
its  upper  and  lateral  surfaces,  where  its  shape  conforms 

1  "Delicate  mother." 


230  THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

to  that  of  the  skull,  while  its  base  or  lower  surface  is 
more  flattened,  and  rests  anteriorly  upon  the  floor  of  the 
cranial  cavity,  and  posteriorly  upon  a  membranous  expan- 
sion of  the  dura  mater  separating  it  from  the  cerebellum. 
The  longitudinal  fissure,  before  referred  to,  divides  the 
cerebrum  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  called  hemispheres, 
which,  however,  are  connected  towards  their  lower  portions 
by  a  white,  nervous  substance,  called  a  commissure?- 

321.  Both  hemispheres  are  everywhere  marked  on  their 
outer  surfaces  with  irregular  grooves  and  ridges,  and  are 
covered  by  gray  matter.  The  undulations  thus  formed  are 
termed  convolutions.  This  convoluted  arrangement  pro- 
vides, in  a  small  space,  a  large  amount  of  gray  matter,  the 
source  of  nervous  power.  The  convolutions,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  number  and  well-marked  character,  indicate 
the  degree  of  intelligence  in  animals  and  man.  In  young- 
children,  especially  before  the  age  of  seven  years,  when 
the  brain  is  very  soft  and  imperfectly  developed,  and  the 
mental  powers  are  not  strong,  the  convolutions  are  not 
well  marked.  Such  is  also  the  case  in  the  lower  animals 
and  in  the  uncivilized  races  of  mankind.^  The  white 
luatter  of  the  hemispheres  is  large  in  amount,  and  con- 
sists of  nerve  fibres  prolonged  from  various  tissues  and 
organs  of  the  body.  These  fibres  terminate  in  the  gray 
matter  of  the  convolutions  and  in  the  ganglia  of  the 
brain. ^ 


1  That  is,  "point  of  union  of  two  parts." 

2  "  There  are  exceptions,  however,  as  in  the  whale  and  elephant,  in  which 
the  convolutions  are  exceedingly  intricate  and  beautiful.  The  particular 
arrangement  of  the  fissures  and  convolutions  differ  as  the  brain  ascends  througli 
the  half  apes,  the  apes,  and  man." 

3  In  the  cerebrum  are  many  curious  and  interesting  anatomical  arrange- 
ments; viz.,  cavities,  ventricles  or  water  beds,  passage  ways,  curtains,  etc., 
which,  though  important  to  the  anatomist  and  physician,  are  too  intricate  and 
complex  to  be  here  described. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  231 

322.  Notwithstanding  the  complicated  structure  of  the 
cerebrum,  and  the  fact  of  their  being  two  hemispheres,  it 
is  a  single  organ^  as  far  as  the  intellect  is  concerned,  but 
a  double  one  with  relation  to  the  two  sides  of  the  body. 
Impressions  from  either  side  of  the  body,  such  as  result, 
for  example,  from  injuries,  will  be  appreciated  through 
the  hemisphere  on  the  opposite  side,  owing  to  the  decus- 
sation, in  the  course  of  the  spinal  cord,  of  nerve  filaments 
which  convey  sensations.  The  bursting  of  one  or  more 
blood-vessels  (^.e.,  apoplexy),  or  the  stoppage  of  a  vessel 
by  a  blood  clot,  on  one  side  of  the  cerebrum,  injures  the 
nervous  tissue  and  produces  complete  or  partial  paralysis, 
but  only  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  body,  owing  to  the 
decussation  in  the  medulla  oblongata  of  nerve  filaments 
that  convey  motor  impulses. 

323.  The  cerebrum  is  the  organ  of  the  mind.  It  is 
that  part  of  the  nervous  system  through  which  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  powers  or  faculties  act.^  These  facul- 
ties, rightly  used,  make  man  the  "  noblest  work  of  God"; 
for  his  is  the  highest  organism,  and  "  the  one  which  best 
adapts  itself  to  its  environments."  Of  these  faculties  we 
shall  speak  more  particularly  of  but  one,  —  the  memory. 

324.  Memory.,  or  retentiveness.,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  that  faculty  by  which  we  retain  in  our  minds  the  impres- 
sions received  therein.^     A  good  memory  is  essential  to  a 

}  Facts  in  regard  to  the  functions  of  the  nervous  system  are  ascertained 
from  the  study  of  the  lower  animals,  and  by  experiments  made  upon  them,  and 
also  by  studying  the  results  of  disease  and  injury  in  the  human  being.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  cerebral  substance  is  not  sensitive,  but  can  be  cut  or  torn 
without  pain  resulting.  In  general,  loss  of  cerebral  substance  by  disease  or 
severe  injury  results  in  impaired  memory,  tardy,  inaccurate,  and  feeble  connec- 
tion of  ideas,  irritability  of  temper,  easily-excited  emotional  manifestations,  etc. 

2  All  of  the  higher  forms  of  animal  life  have  memory.  The  elephant,  it 
is  said,  will  remember  for  months  persons  who  attempt  to  injure  him.    The 


232  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

healthy  development  of  the  intellect.^  It  is  the  function 
of  a  good  memory  not  only  to  retain  facts,  but  to  pro- 
duce them  when  wanted ;  not  merely  to  store  up  knoAvl- 
edge,  but  to  use  it  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  proper 
way.  Facts  are  not  isolated  from  each  other ;  they  have 
their  connections  and  relations.  When  systematized  and 
arranged,  they  teach  us  all  that  we  can  know  of  philos- 
ophy or  science.  To  memorize  dry  catalogues  of  facts  is 
to  refuse  to  thinks  and  is  an  abnormal  use  of  the  memory, 
which  should  never  be  permitted  by  the  true  educator  of 
the  mental  powers,  (a.)  It  is  the  connection  between  facts, 
and  the  perception  of  that  connection  by  the  logical  facul- 
ties, which  enables  memory  to  retain  its  grasp  upon  them ; 
and  when  that  connection  is  not  perceived,  memory  becomes 
a  rope  of  sand.^ 

325c  Of  the  success  of  the  various  attempts  which 
have  been  made,  from  time  to  time,  to  locate  the  organs 
of  the  mental  faculties  in  various  parts  of  the  cerebrum, 
it  is  perhaps  too  early  to  speak  with  scientific  accuracy, 
though  much  has  been  accomplished  within  the  last  few 
years   towards   localizing   the    centres   of  motion,    sensa 

horse  does  not  forget  kind  treatment,  and  the  dog,  more  demonstrative  than 
either,  will  readily  approach  and  caress  his  kind  master,  while  he  slinks  away 
from  his  persecutor. 

1  There  is  a  common  impression  that  a  weakened  memory  is  among  the 
first  evidences  of  a  diseased  brain;  whereas,  in  many  forms  of  insanity  the 
memory  is  normal,  or  even  acute. 

2  ' '  We  are  apt  to  be  carried  away  with  a  vague  notion  that  there  is  no 
limit  to  acquirement,  except  our  defect  of  application  or  some  other  curable 
weakness  of  our  own.  There  are,  however,  very  manifest  limits.  We  are 
all  blockheads  in  something  ;  some  of  us  fail  in  mechanical  aptitude,  some  in 
music,  some  in  languages,  some  in  science  ;  memory  iu  one  of  these  lines  of 
incapacity  is  a  rope  of  sand ;  there  must  be  in  each  case  a  deficiency  of  cere- 
bral substance  for  that  class  of  connections."  —  3find  and  Body.    Bain. 

Curious  instances  are  narrated,  and  in  fact  occur  in  the  experience  of  every- 
one, which  seem  to  show  the  exercise  of  considerable  reasoning  power  in 
brutes. 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  233 

tion,  sight,  smell,  etc.^  "  It  is  known  that  irritation  of 
the  surface  of  the  brain  by  electricity  will  evoke  move- 
ments of  the  muscles.  And  it  has  been  determined  by 
experiments  upon  the  lower  animals  what  portions  of 
the  brain  need  to  be  thus  irritated,  in  order  to  produce 
muscular  movements  in  any  particular  part  of  the  body. 
It  has  been  further  shown  by  similar  experiments,  and 
corroborated  by  studies  of  diseased  conditions  of  the 
brain,  that  the  removal  of  certain  parts  of  the  brain, 
respectively,  or  injury  to  them,  will  produce  blindness, 
deafness,  or  lack  of  smell,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be."^ 
Whether  the  organs  of  the  faculties  may  or  may  not  be 
localized,  the  brain  is,  nevertheless,  a  part  of  the  body, 
and  subject  to  the  same  laws.  In  consequence,  the  exer- 
cise of  the  faculties  wears  out  cerebral  substance,  which 
must  be  restored  by  obeying  hygienic  laws.  If  one 
faculty  or  set  of  faculties  has  been  overtaxed,  rest  and 
the  use  of  other  faculties  instead  are  demanded.  The 
most  vigorous  intellect  is  generally  found  in  the  most 
evenly  developed  body ;  and  so  closely  are  mind  and  body 
related,  that  if  the  health  of  one  fails,  that  of  the  other 
also  is  likely  to  be  impaired. 


1  "  The  faculty  of  articulate  language  appears  to  reside  in  the  third  or 
inferior  frontal  convolution  of  the  left  side,  which  convolution  would  contain 
both  the  centre  for  the  memory  of  words,  and  the  centre  for  the  coordination 
or  combination  of  the  movements  of  speech."  —Tablets  of  Physiologij.    Cooke. 

The  fact  of  the  above  localization  is  generally  accepted  by  physiologists, 
but  recent  investigations  seem  to  show  that  the  centres  for  motion,  sensation, 
and  the  mental  faculties  are  not  as  isolated  as  has  been  hitherto  supposed,  but 
that  they  are  more  diffused  and  shade  off  into  each  other.  Thus  a  wonderful 
provision  is  made  for  emergencies.  If  the  very  heart  of  an  ideal  centre  or 
area  be  injured,  there  will  be  oftentimes  sufficient  nervous  tissue  remaining  to 
perform  the  work  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  manner. 

2  A  dog,  deprived  of  smell,  by  injury  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  brain, 
will  not  touch  a  piece  of  meat  temptingly  put  before  him ;  but,  if  the  piece  is 
put  into  his  mouth,  the  sense  of  taste  enables  him  to  recognize  it,  and  then  he 
devours  it. 


234  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

326.  The  cerebellum,  like  the  cerebrum,  is  covered  by 
gray  or  ash-colored  matter,  which  dips  into  the  white  sub- 
stance. There  are  no  convolutions,  but  in  their  place 
nearly  parallel  ridges  of  irregular  depth.^  The  cerebellum 
is  well  protected  by  its  membranes  and  by  thick,  bony 
walls.  Like  the  cerebrum,  it  is  without  feeling.  Its  func- 
tion is  the  coordination  or  harmonious  regulation  of  the 
movements  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  The  necessity  of 
its  directing  power  is  made  manifest  whenever  that  power 
is  interfered  with,  as  is  shown  in  the  unsteady  gait  of  the 
drunkard,  or  where  there  is  some  injury  or  disease  of  the 
cerebellum. 

327.  The  third  division  of  the  brain,  or  medulla  oblon- 
gata, is  the  upper  enlarged  end  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  "  ob- 
long spine,"  as  the  name  implies.  It  resembles  the  spinal 
cord  in  the  arrangement  of  the  white  and  gray  matter. 
From  its  interior  and  from  the  under  surface  of  the  cere- 
brum arise  what  are  known  as  the  cranial  nerves,  which 
emerge  from  the  cranial  cavity  through  openingjp  in  the 
base  of  the  skull,  and  are  distributed  to  various  parts  of 
the  head  and  neck,  to  the  organs  of  special  sense,  and  to 
some  of  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  organs.  In  the  front 
portion  of  the  medulla  oblongata  the  motor  nerve  fibres 
cross  or  "  decussate "  in  their  passage  to  and  from  the 
brain.  But  a  still  more  essential  feature  of  the  medulla 
oblongata  is  that,  in  its  posterior  and  lowermost  portion, 
nerves  have  their  origin  which  control  indirectly  the  func- 
tion of  respiration.  Important  portions  of  the  cerebrum 
or  cerebellum  may  be  almost  destroyed  by  disease  or  injury, 
and  in  consequence  the  various  mental  faculties  may  be 
rendered  almost  useless,  and  sensation  in  general  and  the 

1  From  the  peculiar  branching  appearance  of  the  gray  matter  in  a  perpen- 
dicular section  of  the  cerebellum,  it  is  called  arbor  vitae,  or  tree  of  life. 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


235 


power  of  voluntary  motion  may  be  lost ;  yet,  if  the  points 
of  origin  of  these  nerves  —  vital  knots  or  points,  as  they 
sometimes    called  —  are  intact,  life  remains.      If  in- 


are 


jured,  breathing  is  impaired;  if  destroyed,  death  necessa- 


CE 


CE 


CER 


Fig.  70. 
The  lower  surface  or  base  of  the  brahi.  — CE,  cerebrum,  right  and  left  hemispheres; 
CER,  cerebellum,  right  and  left  portions.  Passing  from  one  hemisphere  to 
another  is  a  white,  broad,  transverse  band  of  fibres,  like  a  bridge.  This  is  the 
"Pons  Varolii"  (bridge  of  Varolius),  and  is  a  bond  of  union  between  the  vari- 
ous segments  of  the  brain.  Underlying  it  is  the  upper  portion  of  the  medulla 
oblongata.  The  cranial  nerves  are  shown  branching  out  from  under  the  front 
and  middle  portions  of  the  hemispheres,  and  from  the  sides  of  the  medulla 
oblongata. 

rily  results.  Hence,  the  protection  of  the  medulla  is  an 
object  of  primary  importance.  It  is  accordingly  so  deeply 
buried  within  the  skull  that  it  is  seldom  injured  by  blows 
and  falls.     Apoplexy  in  this  part  of  the  brain  is  also  of 


236  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

rare  occurrence.  Sometimes,  however,  in  fracture  of  the 
spinal  column  near  its  articulation  with  the  skull,  particles 
of  bone  are  driven  into  the  medulla  oblongata,  causing 
instant  death.^  ^ 

328.  The  spinal  cord^  or  spinal  marrow,  is  continuous 
with  the  medulla  oblongata,  and,  extending  downwards, 
fills  the  cavity  of  the  spinal  canal  in  the  vertebral  column. 
It  is  a  somewhat  cylindrical  mass  of  nerve  tissue,  and  is 
fissured  in  front  and  behind.  It  becomes  enlarged  in  the 
cervical  and  lumbar  regions,  at  the  points  where  the 
nerves  supplying  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  are 
given  off,  and  its  lower  end  sends  out  prolongations 
through  the  sacrum,  which,  from  their  fancied  resemblance 
to  the  hairs  of  a  horse's  tail,  are  called  the  cauda  equina. 
It  is  composed  of  a  central  mass  of  gray  matter,  extend- 
ing nearly  its  entire  length,  and  surrounded  by  longitudi- 
nal bundles  of  nerve  filaments,  the  whole  being  enclosed 
by  the  membranes  (the  dura  mater,  etc.)  before  described. 
The  gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord,  as  shown  in  a  trans- 
verse section,  is  arranged  somewhat  like  a  double  crescent 
united  by  a  band  of  gray  matter.  The  respective  extremi- 
ties of  these  united  crescents  are  called  anterior  and  pos- 
terior horns.  Opposite  them,  at  regular  intervals,  filaments 
of  the  spinal  nerves  emerge  from  the  cord.  The  white 
matter  of  the  cord  lying  between  the  posterior  horns  and 
posterior  fissure,  constitutes  the  right  and  left  posterior 
columns ;  and  that  between  the  posterior  horns  and  ante- 
rior horns,  the  right  and  left  lateral  columns;  that  between 

1  Instantaneous  death  results  also  from  a  "broken  neck,"  or  from  injury  to 
the  medulla  oblongata  without  the  neck  being  broken,  as  when  the  atlas  is 
dislocated  by  the  striking  of  the  head  upon  the  bed  of  a  stream  in  diving  from 
a  height  into  shallow  water,  a  proceeding  always  attended  with  danger.  Occa- 
sionally animals  fall  dead  from  sudden  injury  to  the  vital  knot.  For  instance, 
a  clumsy  shanghai  rooster,  in  full  pursuit  of  another,  died  suddenly  from  fall- 
ing over  a  wooden  pail,  striking,  in  the  fall,  the  back  of  his  head. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


237 


the  anterior  horns  and  anterior  fissure,  the  anterior  col- 
umns.^ These  columns  are  connected  with  filaments  of 
the  spinal  nerves,  and  thus  the  spinal  cord  is  a  conducting 
medium  as  well  as  a  nerve  centre.  The  posterior  col- 
umns of  the  spinal  cord  convey  sensory  impressions  to  the 
cerebrum,  and  the  antero-lateral  columns  convey  motor 
impulses  from  the  cerebrum. 
Injury  to  the  spinal  cord  will 
produce  paralysis  of  the  parts 
below,  through  the  spinal  nerves. 
Such  injuries  generally  occur 
when  one  or  more  of  the  verte- 
brae are  broken  by  falls,  blows, 
etc.  When  the  spinal  column  is 
fractured  at  its  middle,  the  lower 
extremities  are  paralyzed,  the 
upper  remaining  unaffected.^ 
When  the  injury  is  in  the  neck 
region,  the  upper  extremities  are 
also  paralyzed,  for  the  cord  is 
damaged  above  the  point  at 
which  the  nerves  distributed  to  them  are  given  off.  Some- 
times injuries  to  the  spine  result  in  loss  of  power  or 
sensation  only ;  but,  if  severe,  the  parts  below  are  deprived 
of  both  sensation  and  voluntary  motion. 

329.  The  spinal  nerves  consist  of  thirty-one  symmet- 
rical pairs  of  nerves,  which  are  connected  with  the  spinal 
cord  by  so-called  roots.     Each  nerve  has  an  anterior  and  a 


Fig.  71. 
Segment  of  the  spinal  cord.  —  1,  an- 
terior fissure;  2,  posterior  fissure; 
3,  posterior  horns  ;  5,  anterior 
column;  6,  lateral  column;  7,  pos- 
terior column ;  8,  anterior  commis- 
sure; 9,  anterior  horns  of  gray- 
matter;  12,  anterior  root  of  a  spinal 
nerve;  13,  posterior  root;  14,  gan- 
glion on  posterior  root;  15,  spinal 
nerve  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
two  roots. 


1  "  Called  columns  because  the  nerve  fibres  composing  them  run  for  the 
most  part  in  a  longitudinal  direction."  Recent  investigations  seem  to  show 
that  the  columns  are  more  intricate  than  has  been  believed,  and  admit  of  fur- 
ther division  and  subdivision. 

-  Such  paralysis  is  called  parapkf/ia,  while  that  which  results  in  one 
side  of  the  body  from  injury  to  one  cerebral  hemisphere  is  known  as  hcini- 
pleyia. 


238  '  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

posterior  root.  The  posterior  roots  (upon  each  of  which 
is  a  ganglion),  with  their  respective  nerves,  are  known  as 
sensory  roots  and  nerves^  because  they  convey  sensations ; 
while  the  anterior  roots,  with  their  nerves,  are  the  motor 
roots  and  nerves^  because  they  convey  motor  impulses. 
Just  beyond  or  outside  of  their  junction  with  their  respec- 
tive roots,  the  motor  and  sensitive  filaments  are  enclosed 
in  the  same  sheath,  but  their  functions  always  remain  dis- 
tinct. The  spinal  nerves  are  mainly  distributed  to  the 
skin  and  muscles  upon  the  corresponding  sides  of  the 
body,  and  convey  nervous  force  and  impressions  to  the 
trunk  and  the  extremities. 

330.  Sensory  impressions^  such  as  the  perception  of 
heat  and  cold,  or  of  the  size,  consistency,  location,  and 
character  of  objects,  are  conveyed  by  the  sensory  nerve 
fibres  of  the  skin  and  other  parts  of  the  body  to  the  sen- 
sory roots  of  spinal  nerves,  and  by  them  to  the  gray  mat- 
ter of  the  cord,  or  to  the  posterior  columns  of  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  spinal  cord,  to  be  transmitted  by  them  to 
the  cerebrum.^  We  become  conscious  of  sensations  only 
tvhen  they  are  thus  carried  to  the  brain.  In  proportion, 
however,  as  an  object  becomes  painful,  whether  by  reason 
of  its  great  heat,  pressure,  or  otherwise,  the  sensory  nerves 
lose  their  power  of  enabling  us  to  perceive  the  ordinary 
properties  of  the  object,  and  we  become  aware  only  of 
suffering.  An  injury  to  a  sensitive  nerve  in  any  part  of 
its  course  is  not  felt  at  the  point  of  injury,  but  where 
impressions  are  ordinarily  felt,  —  at  the  terminal  points  of 
the  nerve  filaments.  This  fact  explains  why  it  is,  when 
the  ulnar  nerve,  or  "  funny  bone,"  at  the  elbow  is  struck 
sharply,  numbness  or  pain  is  referred  to  the  outer  side  of 

1  Sensory  nerves  are  sometimes  called  ajffej-enf  nerves;  and  motor  nerves, 

the  efferent  nerves. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  239 

the  hand  and  the  little  finger,  which  parts  are  supplied  by 
this  nerve.  Oftentimes,  after  a  limb  has  been  amputated, 
the  patient  claims  that  he  suffers  pain  in  the  part  removed, 
or  that  his  toes  or  fingers,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  being 
tampered  with.  The  cause  of  this  distress  is  generally 
found  to  be  some  irritation  of  the  nerve  in  the  wound. 
When  the  force  of  the  nervous  current  is  diminished  in 
sensory  and  motor  nerves  by  pressure,  as  when  one  leg  is 


Fig.  72.    (Westbbook.) 

A  diagram  to  represent  the  passage  of  the  nerve  fibres  from  the  spinal  cord  upward  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  brain,  and  some  of  the  more  important  ganglionic  masse-s 
with  which  they  are  associated.  —  1.  The  gray  matter  of  the  cerebral  convolutions. 
2.  The  white  matter  of  the  interior  of  the  cerebrum,  through  which  the  fibres  pass 
on  their  way  to  the  convolutions.  3.  The  corpus  striatum,  or  anterior  basal  ganglion ; 
the  fibres  passing  through  it  run  in  three  principal  directions:  viz.,  to  the  anterior, 
middle,  and  posterior  regions  of  the  cerebrum ;  they  are  represented  by  the  three 
continuous  lines.  4.  The  space  between  the  two  basal  ganglia,  through  which  fibres 
pass  directly  from  below  upwards;  these  fibres  appear  in  the  cerebrum  as  broken 
lines,  running  toward  the  three  principal  regions.  5.  The  optic  thalamus,  or  pos- 
terior basal  ganglion,  with  fibres  (represented  by  dotted  lines)  traversing  it  on  their 
way  from  below  upward.  6.  The  x>ons  Varolii,  made  up  of  horizontal  fibres  which 
cross  from  one  side  of  the  cerebellum  to  the  other.  7.  Corpora  quadrigemina,  from 
which  the  optic  nerves,  in  part,  take  their  origin.  8.  Tlie  cerebellum,  with  a  gangli- 
onic mass  in  its  interior,  and  fibres  passing  into  it  from  the  brain  above  and  medulla 
oblongata  below  (9).  10.  The  dark  convoluted  line  indicates  the  ganglionic  matter 
of  the  spinal  cord  reaching  up  into  the  medidla  oblongata  and  pons  Varolii. 

kept  crossed  over  the  other,  in  a  constrained  position  for  a 
length  of  time,  or  the  arm  is  lain  upon  in  sleep,  temporary 
numbness  of  the  limb  and  loss  of  motion  results,  and  the 
part  is  said  to  be  asleep.  Attempts  to  move  either  arm 
or  leg  under  the  circumstances  will,  for  a  minute  or  two, 
prove  futile,  as  the  motor  nerves  supplying  these  extremi- 


240  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

ties  cannot  act  in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  the  brain, 
until  they  have  regained  their  tone.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  irritation  of  a  motor  nerve  in  its  course  results  in 
motion  of  the  part  to  which  its  filaments  are  distributed, 
while  a  severe  injury  produces  loss  of  motion. 

331.  The  production  of  motion  is  a  peculiar  function  of 
muscular  tissue.  Motor  impulses  for  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles originate,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  gray  matter  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  nervous  system.^  From  the  cerebral  gray 
matter  they  are  carried  by  motor  nerve  filaments  to  the 
anterior  columns  of  the  cord  upon  the  same  side  of  the 
body,  or  to  the  antero-posterior  columns  on  the  opposite 
side,  and  to  the  motor  nerves  communicating  with  these 
columns.^  From  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord,  motor  power 
passes  out  through  the  anterior  horns,  to  be  distributed  by 
the  motor  nerves  in  connection  with  them.  Only  those 
motions  can  he  considered  as  voluntary  which  emanate  from 
the  brain. 

332.  Of  the  cranial  nerves  (Fig.  70)  there  are  twelve 
sets,  numbered  from  one  to  twelve,  in  the  order  in  which 
they  arise  from  the  base  of  the  brain,  the  enumeration 
beginning  at  the  front  of  the  cerebrum  and  continuing 
backwards.  These  nerves,  w^ith  the  exception  of 
those  distributed  to  the  interior  of  the  nose,  eye,  and  ear 
(termed  nerves  of  special  sense),  are  either  motor  or  sensi- 
tive, or  are  mixed  nerves,  and  convey  both  sensation  and 
motion.  The  cranial  nerves  which  concern  us  at  the 
present  time  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows. 

1  The  involuntary  muscles  are  moved  through  the  sympathetic  system  of 
nerves. 

2  The  nerve  filaments  passing  to  and  from  the  cortex,  or  enveloping  mass  of 
gray  matter  of  the  cerebrum,  for  the  most  part  pass  through  ganglia  at  the 
base  of  the  cerebrum.  Of  these,  the  optic  thalami  (one  in  each  hemisphere) 
are  believed  to  be  sensory  centres,  and  the  corporci  striata  (one  in  each  hemis- 
phere) ,  motor  centres. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  241 

333.  The  fifth  pair  of  nerves  are  the  great  sensitive 
nerves  of  the  face  and  the  side  of  the  head.  They  pos- 
sess also  motor  fibres  (derived  from  distinct  roots)  which 
are  distributed  to  the  muscles  of  mastication.  Each  of 
the  nerves  of  this  pair  has  three  main  trunks.  The  upper 
one  passes  from  the  cranial  cavity  into  the  orbital  cavity,^ 
sending  filaments  to  the  eye  and  adjacent  parts,  then  out 
through  a  notched  opening  in  the  skull  underneath  the 
eyebrow,  towards  its  inner  side,^  and  is  distributed  to  the 
forehead  and  top  of  the  head.  The  second  branch,  after 
leaving  the  cranial  cavity,  runs  along  the  floor  of  the 
orbit,  giving  off  branches  to  the  upper  teeth,  gums,  to  the 
mucous  membrane  of  upper  jaw,  etc.,  and  then  out  of  an 
opening  just  below  the  front  lower  edge  of  the  orbit,  and 
is  distributed  to  the  middle  portion  of  the  face,  the  nose, 
cheeks,  and  upper  lip.  The  third  branch,  with  which  the 
motor  nerve  filaments  are  associated,  supplies  mainly  sensi- 
tive fibres  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  cheeks,  lips,  and 
front  part  of  the  tongue,  and  to  the  lower  teeth,  and  emerges 
at  an  opening  in  the  front  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  lower  lip,  chin,  and  adjacent  parts.  (Fig.  73.) 
Irritation  of  this  nerve  by  disease  or  other  cause  produces 
exquisite  pain,  as  in  neuralgia,  headache,  or  toothache.^ 

334.  The  facial  or  seventh  pair  of  nerves  are  the  great 
motor  nerves  of  the  face,  the  nerves  of  expression,  by 
which  the  features  are  animated  by  various  movements,  in 
response  to  the  emotions.  One  nerve  of  the  pair  emerges 
from  the  skull  near  the  external  opening  of  each  ear,  and 
is  distributed  to  the  muscles  of  the  face.  When  these 
nerves  are  irritated  or  diseased,  convulsive  twitchings  of 

1  The  cavity  in  which  the  eye  rests. 

-  Pressure  at  this  point,  or  where  the  other  two  branches  emerge,  is  attended 
by  sensitiveness. 

3  Neuralgia,  i.e.,  pain  in  a  nerve. 


242  THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

the  face  and  unusual  expressions  result.  If  the  injury  is 
confined  to  the  nerve  of  one  side  of  the  face,  only  the 
facial  movements  upon  that  side  will  be  disturbed  or  made 
impossible. 


Fig.  73. 
Superficial  branches  of  the  .seventh  and  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 

335.  The  pneumogastric  or  tenth  pair  of  nerves  are 
mixed  nerves.  Their  distribution  is  wider  than  that  of 
any  nerves  in  the  body,  and  their  influence  greater,  for 
they  supply  the  larynx,  pharynx,  heart,  and  lungs,  the 
stomach,  intestines,  liver,  and  other  abdominal  organs  with 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


243 


sensibility  and  motion,  and  are  connected  at  various  points 
with  the  sympathetic  system  of  nerves. 

336.  The  syynpathetic  system 
of  nerves^  or  the  great  sympa- 
thetic nerve,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  consists  of  a  double  chain 
of  ganglia  on  the  sides  of  the 
spinal  column ;  also  of  scattered 
ganglia  in  the  head,  neck,  chest, 
and  abdomen.  These  ganglia 
are  connected  with  each  other  by 
filaments,  and  with  the  cerebro- 
spinal nervous  system,  by  motor 
and  sensitive  fibres.  From  them 
numerous  atid  very  delicate 
fibres  are  distributed  chiefly  to 
the  alimentary  canal  and  its 
appendages,  the  heart,  blood- 
vessels, and  certain  other  or- 
gans.i 

At  various  points  the  sympa- 
thetic nerves,  with  their  ganglia, 
form  about  certain  large  arteries 
matted  nets,  or  "plexuses."  A 
typical  one  is  the  solar  plexus 
so  called  because  its  radiating 
nerves  branch  out  like  the  solar 

rays.      This   is  situated  in  the  Fig.  74.  (Dalton.) 

abdomen,  some  of  its  filaments      "S"tf  ^roirrSncheT!:, 
accompanying  the  branches  of         L'j'nTJ.irriS.'Vik^ySgS- 

the      aorta      distributed      to      the  4,  pulmonary  branche. ;  S.Btom- 


1  These  nerves,  distributed  to  the  blood-vessels,  are  known  as  vasomotor 
nerves,  and  the  continuous  muscular  action  they  furnish  as  the  "tone"  or 
the  "  tonic  contraction"  of  the  arteries. 


244 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


Vertical  section  of  body,  showing  sympathetic  nerves  and  ganglia  of  right  side, 
and  their  connection  with  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves.  —  Cerebrospinal  system : 
CN,  cervical  nerves;  B,  nerves  distributed  to  the  arm;  DN,  dorsal  nerves; 
SN,  saccral  nerves,  some  of  which  are  distributed  to  the  leg;  PX,  pneumogas- 
tric  nerve.  Sympathetic  system:  P,  plexus  in  the  head ;  PP,  pharyngeal  plexus ; 
CP,  cardiac  plexus;  OP,  oesophegeal  plexus;  SoP,  solar  plexus;  AP,  aortic 
plexus;  MP,  mesenteric  plexus;  SP,  saccral  plexus;  G,  some  of  the  ganglia  of 
the  sympathetic  system. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  245 

stomach,  intestine,  spleen,  pancreas,  liver,  and  other  organs. 
An  injury  to  this  plexus,  as  by  a  severe  blow  upon  the 
abdomen,  is  likely  to  result  in  sudden  death.  When  per- 
sons are  said  to  die  of  "concussion"  or  "shock,"  death 
results  from  a  severe  disturbance  of  the  sympathetic 
system.  Soldiers  have  been  known  to  die  suddenly, 
without  any  mark  of  injury  being  found  upon  their  bod- 
ies, from  the  passage  very  near  them  of  cannon  balls. 
Squirrels  and  other  small  game  are  sometimes  killed  by 
good  huntsmen  by  bullets  fired  close  to  the  head.  Fish, 
especially  pike,  have  been  stunned  or  killed  when  within 
a  few  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  by  a  sharp  blow 
struck  upon  the  water  just  above  them,  or  by  the  close 
contact  of  a  pistol  ball. 

337.  The  sympathetic  system,  as  has  been  said,  con- 
trols, for  the  most  part,  the  involuntary  processes,  such  as 
circulation,  respiration,  and  digestion,  so  that  ordinarily 
in  health  we  do  not  realize  we  have  a  heart,  lungs,  and 
stomach,  so  quietly  does  the  vital  machinery  work.  Yet, 
owing  to  the  connection  of  the  sympathetic  with  the 
cerebro-spinal  nerves,  the  functions  of  the  internal  organs 
may  be  disarranged  by  apparently  slight  causes.  For 
example,  emotional  disturbances,  such  as  terror  and  fear, 
will  contract  the  arterioles,  and  thus  cause  paleness,  while 
shame  and  joy  will  cause  blushing  by  the  dilation  of  these 
vessels.  Even  unpleasant  sounds,  odors,  or  events,  will 
sometimes  interfere  with  digestion,  the  action  of  the  heart, 
and  the  secretion  of  tears. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  functions  or  processes  may  be  considered  as  peculiar  to  animals? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  irritability  of  organs,  and  to  what  is  it  due? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  the  nervous  system,  and  to  what  may  it  be 

compared  ? 


246  THE   NERVOITS    SYSTEM. 

4.  Wliat  two  kinds  of  nervous  tissue  are  there  ?    Which  is  the  more 

abundant  ? 

5.  Where  is  each  located? 

6.  What  are  nerve  filaments?  nerves?  the  neurilemma?  the  function 

of  nerves? 

7.  Describe  the  gray  matter  ;  the  ganglia,  and  their  function. 

8.  What  three  divisions  has  the  brain?     How  are  the  brain  and 

spinal  cord  divided  longitudinally  ? 

9.  Name  and  describe  the  three  coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 

10.  On  what  several  things  does  the  working  capacity  of  the  brain 

depend  ? 

11.  Describe  the  cerebrum  and  its  hemispheres.     What  do  the  convo- 

lutions indicate? 

12.  What  relation  have  the  hemispheres  with  each  other  and  with 

the  body? 

13.  AVhat  is  the  office  of  the  cerebrum  ?  of  memory  ? 

14.  What  effect  has   mental  exercise  upon  the  cerebral  substance? 

What  follows  from  this  ? 

15.  Describe  the  cerebellum  and  its  function.    The  medulla  oblongata. 

16.  Why  is  the  medulla  oblongata  a  very  important  part  of  the  brain  ? 

How  is  it  protected  ? 

17.  Describe  the  spinal  cord.   Which  parts  convey  sensations  ?  which 

motor  impulses  ? 

18.  What  are  the  spinal  nerves  ?    Which  of  their  roots  convey  sensa- 

tions ?  which  motor  impulses  ? 

19.  How  are  sensations  conveyed  to  the  brain  ? 

20.  How  is  motion  produced?  where  originated?    How  is  the  motor 

impulse  transmitted  ? 

21.  What  is  the  effect  of  irritating  nerves  midway  in  their  course? 

22.  What  follows  the  division  of  nerves  or  of  the  spinal  cord  ? 

23.  What  are  the  cranial   nerves?     Whence   do  they  issue?     How 

many  are  there  ? 

24.  How  many  and  what  branches  has  the  fifth  i:>air  ?    What  causes 

toothache  ? 

25.  What  pair  constitutes  the  facial  nerves  ?     What  follows  their  use  ? 

their  injury  ? 

26.  Describe  the  tenth  or  pneumogastric  nerve. 

27.  Describe  the  sympathetic  system,  and  its  ganglia  and  plexuses. 

28.  Over  what  processes  does  this  system  preside?    What  is  its  nor- 

mal action  ?    What  may  ensue  from  a  sudden  shock  to  a  plexus  ? 


CHAPTER   XV. 

NERVOUS    SYSTEM,   Con^iimetZ.  —  NERVE 
FORCE. 

338.  The  peculiar  power  transmitted  by  the  nerves 
is  known  as  nerve  force}  In  character  and  rapidity  of 
movement  it  resembles  the  electric  current.^  So  rapid 
is  the  transmission  of  nerve  force  that  it  seems  almost 
instantaneous.  Dr.  Flint  states  that  "  the  rate  of  conduc- 
tion in  the  human  subject  is  essentially  the  same  in  the 
motor  and  sensory  nerves,  being,  according  to  the  most 
reliable  estimates,  about  one  hundred  and  eleven  feet  per 
second,''''  ^ 

339.  Nerve  force  is  put  in  motion  hy  stimuli^  within  or 
without  the  body,  such,  for  example,  as  food,  waves  of 
light  and  sound,  the  emotions,  and  the  applications  of 
electricity  and  other  agents,  and,  when  aroused,  manifests 
itself  in  voluntary  and  involuntary  functions,  and  in  the 
various  motions  and  sensations  incident  to  the  body. 

1  The  ancients  believed  that  nerve  force  was  a  fluid,  and  hence  called  it 
"  tthe  nervous  fluid." 

•2  The  electric  shocks  furnished  by  the  electric  eel,  when  handled,  emanate 
from  organs  especially  adapted  to  the  purpose,  which  organs  are  under  the 
control  of  the  nervous  system. 

3  Some  estimates  give  the  rate  in  motor  nerves  at  about  250  feet  per  second. 
An  act  of  volition  is  said  to  require  i^th.  of  a  second ;  a  simple  distinction  or 
recognition  of  an  impression,  o^th  of  a  second. 

"  In  the  case  of  the  ear,  when  the  sound  attended  to  is  that  of  two  electrical 
sparks  quickly  succeeding  each  other,  it  can  be  perceived  that  there  are  two, 
and  that  one  is  earlier  than  the  other,  when  it  precedes  it  by  no  more  than 
0.002  sec' '  —  Physiolofiy.    Powers. 


248  NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  —  NERVOUS    FORCE. 

Certain  parts  of  the  body,  by  reason  of  their  function, 
possess  extreme  excitability,  and  nerve  force  is  aroused  to 
great  intensity  by  very  slight  causes.  A  minute  particle 
of  thread  lodging  in  the  larynx,  by  its  irritation,  induces, 
in  the  first  place,  coughing,  then  contraction  of  the  laryn- 
geal muscles  to  effect  its  expulsion.  If  the  offending 
object  is  not  readily  expelled,  other  muscles,  such  as  the 
diaphragm  and  the  chest  muscles  of  respiration,  begin  to 
act  in  concert,  and  it  may  be  that  before  the  effort  at 
expulsion  is  effectual,  many  of  the  muscles  of  the  entire 
body  have  united  in  the  effort  to  get  rid  of  the  insignific- 
ant particle.  The  sufferer  meanwhile  becomes  "black 
in  the  face "  and  exhausted  from  the  venous  congestion 
caused  by  the  powerful  contraction  of  all  these  muscles. 

340.  Sometimes  nerve  force  is  said  to  be  transferred ; 
^.e.,  pain  or  some  other  kind  of  sensation  is  felt  in  an 
altogether  different  part  from  that  where  the  stimulus 
really  is ;  as,  for  example,  in  disease  of  the  hip  joint,  pain 
in  ,the  knee  is  a  common  sign,  while  at  the  hip  it  is  com- 
paratively rare.  So,  too,  when  the  lungs  are  irritated, 
the  impression  is  transferred  to  the  nerves  of  the  larynx, 
and  coughing  results.  Again,  the  sun's  light  falling 
strongly  upon  the  eye,  excites  tickling  in  the  nose  and 
sneezing. 

341.  So  called  nervous  actions  result,  either  from  the 
direct  transmission  of  nerve  force  by  motor  and  sensory 
nerves  to  and  from  nerve  centres,  or  by  special  nerves 
through  the  special  organs  of  sight,  hearing,  taste,  and 
smell,  or  from  the  reflection  from  one  set  of  nerves  to 
another,  through  a  nerve  centre.  An  impression  conveyed 
to  a  nerve  centre  by  a  sensory  nerve,  and  from  thence 
reflected  to  the  motor  nerve,  results  in  muscular  move- 
ment or  secretion,  which  are  said  to  be  the  effect  of  reflex 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. —  NERVOUS   FORCE.  249 

action.  For  the  performance  of  reflex  action  it  is  essential 
that  the  continuity  of  the  sensory  nerve  be  intact  between 
the  terminal  point  irritated  and  the  nerve  centre,  that  the 
nerve  centre  be  healthy  and  uninjured,  and  that  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  motor  nerve  be  intact  from  the  nerve  centre 
to  the  glands  or  muscles  acted  upon. 

342.  Reflex  action  occurs  frequently  in  the  body  and 
in  both  divisions  of  the  nervous  system.  For  the  most 
part  it  is  performed  without  the  knowledge  of  the  Indi- 
vidual, but  when  it  occurs  through  the  brain  it  becomes 
appreciable,  and  ma}^  even  be  voluntarily  aided.  For 
example,  the  act  of  swallowing  is  mainly  the  result  of  an 
unconscious  reflex  action  by  the  mere  contact  of  sub- 
stances with  the  pharynx.  But  if  an  irritant,  such  as  the 
end  of  a  feather  or  of  a  finger  be  thrust  into  the  throat, 
involuntary  efforts  at  expulsion  are  made,  and  these  may 
be  aided  by  the  voluntary  efforts  of  the  individual.  The 
reflex  action  of  the  medulla,  by  which  ordinary  respiration 
is  carried  on,  is  generally  automatic,  but,  when  the  breath- 
ing air  becomes  vitiated  so  that  we  experience  discomfort, 
or  when  nervous  force  is  irregularly  and  insufficiently  sup- 
plied to  the  lungs,  we  become  conscious  of  forced  and 
irregular  breathing,  and  may  lend  voluntary  assistance  to 
the  automatic  efforts.  The  act  of  winking  is  the  result  of 
a  reflex  action,  and  occurs  generally  without  our  knowl- 
edge, but  may  also  be  performed  at  will. 

343.  There  are  certain  reflex  actions  effected  through 
the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  in  conjunction  with  those  of  the 
sympathetic  system,  of  which  we  are  conscious,  but  over 
which  we  have  ordinarily  no  control.  Of  the  results  of 
these  may  be  mentioned  coughing,  vomiting,  the  secretion 
of  tears  from  irritation  of  the  eyes  by  dust,  etc.,  blushing 
or  paleness  as  the  result  of  emotions,  the  closure  of  the 


250  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. — NERVOUS   FORCE. 

eyelids  at  a  sudden  flash  of  light,  and  a  grimace  on  sud- 
denly inhaling  an  unpleasant  odor.^ 

344.  The  reflex  actions  of  the  sympathetie  system^  i.e., 
those  exerted  through  the  sympathetic  nerves  and  their 
ganglia,  we  are  not  even  conscious  of,  except  in  some  dis- 
eased conditions  of  the  body.  Such  actions  result  in 
secretion,  excretion,  absorption,  peristaltic  movements,  the 
contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  in  regu- 
lating the  admission  of  light,  and  the  variations  from  time 
to  time  in  the  volume  and  rapidity  of  the  blood  current 
in  the  numberless  capillaries  of  the  body. 

345.  Reflex  actions  through  the  spinal  cord  afford  good 
examples  of  involuntary  muscular  actions  unconsciously 
performed.  Such  a  reflex  action,  as  Dalton  states  it,  is' 
"  merely  the  transfer  of  a  sensory  impression  through  the 
gray  matter  of  the  cord  to  a  motor  nerve."  Hence,  if  the 
spinal  cord  be  severed  at  any  point,  though  the  power  of 
voluntary  motion  is  at  once  lost  in  all  parts  below  that 
point,  i.e.,  paralysis  occurs;  yet,  if  the  reflex  activity  of 
the  spinal  cord  below  the  severed  point  remains  intact, 
and  the  foot  be  tickled,  the  foot  and  leg  will  be  hastily 
drawn  away  from  the  irritation.  In  the  same  way  a  hand 
or  foot,  accidentally  coming  in  contact  with  a  hot  sub- 
stance, is  instantly  snatched  away  before  the  brain  has  had 
time  to  take  cognizance  of  the  danger.  The  instinctive 
efforts  made  to  hold  or  regain  one's  footing,  when  jostled 
in  a  crowded  vehicle  or  slipping  upon  the  pavement,  are 
also  due  to  like   reflex  impulses.     If   the  spinal  cord  is 

1  Sometimes  pressure  upon  the  upper  lip  will  prevent  sneezing,  and  diver- 
sion of  the  mind  by  new  scenes  or  objects  will  stop  an  irritating  cough,  oi 
even  prevent  vomiting.  A  surgeon,  after  taking  an  active  emetic,  was  almost 
immediately  called  upon  to  perform  an  important  surgical  operation.  Not  till 
after  the  operation  was  performed  and  the  anxiety  was  over  did  the  emetic 
take  effect. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  —  NERVOUS   FORCE.  251 

inflamed,  or  is  under  the  influence  of  strychnine,  or  any 
other  stimulating  substance,  the  sensitiveness  of  the  gray 
matter  of  the  cord  to  impressions  is  greatly  increased.  In 
such  instances,  convulsions  readily  occur  by  contact  of 
the  body  with  a  draught  of  air,  or  by  the  noise  caused  by 
the  sudden  shutting  of  a  door.  In  cold-blooded  animals 
the  reflex  activity  of  the  cord  remains  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  even  after  the  brain  has  been  removed 
and  the  animal  is  practically  dead.  A  decapitated  frog 
will  jump  in  a  natural  manner  when  the  feet  are  pinched 
or  irritated. 

346.  The  voluntary  faculties  may  be  educated  to  act 
in  a  sort  of  reflex  manner.  Actions,  which  at  first  are 
purely  voluntary  and  consciously  performed,  may,  by  fre- 
quent repetition,  become  habitual  and  be  apparently  un- 
consciously performed.  They  have  been  called  artificial 
reflex  actions^  and  are  common.  The  expert  pianist  plays 
the  most  intricate  music,  without  any  apparent  thought 
upon  his  part  as  to  how  his  fingers  are  to  move,  and  it  is  a 
common  experience  for  persons  to  walk,  eat,  and  even 
read  in  an  automatic  manner,  while  their  thoughts  are 
abstracted  on  other  matters.^  Children,  by  imitating  the 
odd  habits  or  actions  of  others,  sometimes  acquire  similar 
habits  which  may  be  very  difficult  for  them  to  eradicate.^ 

1  It  is  said  that  a  soldier,  while  carrying  a  bowl  of  soup,  suddenly  dropped 
it  on  hearing  some  one  call  "  attention,"  so  accustomed  was  he  at  that  word  of 
command  to  stand  erect  with  his  hands  by  his  sides.  Convalescing  soldiers 
in  military  hospitals  have  been  known  to  jump  out  of  warm  beds  and  stand 
erect  at  hearing  the  word  "  attention  "  shouted  in  through  the  door  by  a  would- 
be  joker. 

A  gentleman,  accustomed  to  eat  apples  while  reading,  often  reached  out  his 
hand  for  an  apple,  while  his  thoughts  were  busy  on  the  book.  One  evening  a 
friend,  unperceived,  added  a  number  of  apples  to  those  already  in  the  dish; 
but  the  reader  unconsciously  ate  apple  after  apple,  until  all  were  gone. 

2  The  unconscious  performance  of  ordinarily  conscious  actions  has  been 
termed  "unconscious  cerebration." 


252  NEKVOTJS   SYSTEM.  —  NERVOUS   FORCE. 

347.  Sometimes  during  sleep,  actions  such  as  walking 
and  writing,  or  even  intellectual  efforts  of  a  high  order, 
are  performed.  Sleep-walkers  or  somnambulists  have 
been  found  carefully  balancing  themselves  on  the  ridges 
of  house-tops,  or  engaged  in  other  perilous  feats.  To 
awaken  them  suddenly,  and  so  disarrange  the  nervous 
control  of  the  muscular  movements,  may  prove  dangerous. 

348.  In  health,  the  reflex  actions  have,  for  the  most 
part,  a  distinct  purpose,  in  some  way  related  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  body,  and  it  is  only  in  some  disordered  or 
diseased  condition  of  the  economy  that  we  appreciate  any 
irregularity  or  want  of  harmonious  nervous  action.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  healthy,  robust  man  or  woman  often  fails  to 
have  any  sympathy  with  the  "  ailing  "  persons  subject  to 
irregular  reflex  nervous  actions,  which  cause  pain,  uneasi- 
ness, nausea,  and  discomfort.  A  strong  will  may  more  or 
less  control  many  of  these  actions,  and  a  weak  one  will  be 
more  or  less  controlled  by  them.  For  example,  the  reflex 
action  of  crying  out  when  in  pain  is  sometimes  prevented 
by  biting  the  tongue,  clenching  the  teeth,  or  by  holding 
some  object  very  tightly.  So,  too,  the  yielding  to  the  sen- 
sation of  tickling,  or  to  the  involuntary  closing  of  the 
eyes  when  a  blow  is  aimed  at  the  head,  may,  in  a  similar 
way,  be  prevented.  But  Mr.  Darwin  gives  a  striking 
example  of  an  instinctive  reflex  act  overriding  a  very 
strong  effort  of  the  will.  "  He  placed  his  face  against  the 
glass  of  the  cobra's  cage  in  the  reptile  house  of  the  Zoolog- 
ical Gardens,  and  though,  of  course,  thoroughly  convinced 
of  his  perfect  security,  could  not,  by  any  effort  of  the 
will,  prevent  himself  from  starting  back  when  the  snake 
struck  with  fury  at  the  glass."  In  young  children  the 
nervous  system  is  delicate  and  very  susceptible  to  impres- 
sions.    Reflex  actions  are  especially  frequent  and  some- 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  —  NERVOUS   FORCE.  253 

times  attended  with  danger,  especially  in  children  of 
excitable  temperaments,  and  who  have  a  tendency,  by  in- 
heritance or  otherwise,  to  nervous  disorders.  In  such 
children,  indigestible  food,  dentition,  fright,  etc.,  may  cause 
convulsions,  epilepsy,  or  even  death. 

349.  The  quantity  of  nerve  force  and  the  amount  of  ner- 
vous energy  which  each  person  possesses  cannot  be  definitely 
stated.  Most  individuals  have  more  than  is  required  for 
the  ordinary  necessities  of  life.  The  surplus  constitutes 
a  reserve  force  which  is  stored  away  for  emergencies.  In 
times  of  tHal,  feeble  and  apparently  inefficient  persons 
sometimes  display  more  ''  nerve "  and  have  greater  ner- 
vous energy  than  those  whose  ordinary  physical  powers 
are  much  greater;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  persons  of 
robust  appearance  may  prove  almost  valueless  on  such 
occasions.  Some  persons,  especially  those  who  are  not  in 
robust  health,  are  particularly  susceptible  to  nervous  im- 
pressions, and  in  them  the  reserve  nervous  force  is  liable 
to  be  recklessly  drawn  upon.  Even  persons  of  strong 
physical  and  mental  powers,  who  do  not  readily  succumb 
to  various  forms  of  dissipation,  and  who  freely  indulge  in 
excessive  pedestrian  exercises,  over-eating  and  drinking, 
late  hours,  etc.,  may  be  unduly  taxing  their  reserve  supply 
of  nervous  force,  while  believing  that  they  are  too  strong 
and  well  to  be  affected  by  the  drain.  But  the  persistent 
overtaxing  of  our  powers,  whether  mental  or  physical,  will 
sooner  or  later  exhaust  the  nervous  system,  and  reduce  us 
to  mental  or  physical  bankruptcy,  (a.) 

350.  Disease,  the  excessive  concentration  of  the  thoughts 
upon  one's  self  by  vain  and  selfish  persons,  excessive  men- 
tal or  physical  work,  and,  above  all,  worry,  especially  if 
associated  with  lack  of  rest,  of  pure  air  and  suitable  food, 
create  a  disturbance  or  perversion  of  nerve  force^  even  in 


254  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. — NERVOUS   FORCE. 

those  who  are  considered  strong,  mentally  and  physi- 
cally. (<af.)  Such  perversion  produces  a  variety  of  so-called 
nervous  disorders,  such  as  nervous  prostration,  nervous 
exhaustion,  nerve  tire,  and  hysteria,  (5.)  attended  by  over- 
sensitiveness  of  various  parts  of  the  body,  or  a  numbness 
or  diminished  sensitiveness,  increased  excitability  of  the 
emotions,  a  tendency  to  spasms  of  voluntary  and  involun- 
tary muscles,  and  to  sudden  congestions  of  blood. 

351.  Many  of  the  nervous  disturbances,  to  which  all 
are  more  or  less  liable,  can  be  warded  off  by  a  proper 
development  of  the  nervous  system^  and  the  consequent 
strengthening  of  nerve  force  and  energy.  Such  a  de- 
velopment is  therefore  an  important  factor  of  health,  and 
may  be  attained  by  systematic  and  proper  exercise  of 
the  nervous  system,  just  as  muscles  and  other  organs  are 
developed  by  regular  and  appropriate  exercise.  Exercise, 
however,  which  is  improperly  adapted  to  the  age,  health, 
and  condition  of  the  individual,  results  in  a  loss  of  nerve 
power.  Like  other  portions  of  the  body,  the  nervous  sys- 
tem needs  for  its  maintenance  and  health  sufficient  and 
wholesome  food,  adequate  exercise  and  rest,  and  all  other 
hygienic  necessities.  Mental  labor  in  excess  is,  contrary 
to  the  belief  of  some  persons,  as  exhausting  as  excessive 
physical  labor,  and  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  pursued  for  so 
long  a  time.  The  amount  of  nervous  energy  which  each 
person  should  expend  depends  upon  the  capacity  of  the 
individual.  No  person,  however,  should  work  up  to  the 
full  measure  of  his  ability.  Moderate  labor,  regularly 
and  systematically  pursued,  will  accomplish  more  than 
any  amount  of  spasmodic  effort,  and  will  not  be  attended 
with  such  danger  to  the  system.  As  far  as  possible,  there- 
fore, regular  mental  and  nervous  work  should  supersede 
irregular   work,   and    monotonous   labor   be   replaced   by 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  —  NERVOUS    FORCE.  255 

varied  exertion,  if  we  are  to  gain  and  maintain  a  "  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body."  Gradually  increasing  and  sys- 
tematic mental  work,  proportionate  to  the  health  and 
nervous  power,  does  not  pull  down  the  average  man.  («.) 
It  is  the  spasmodic  overwork  in  the  struggle  for  wealth 
or  fame,  the  perplexities  which  result  from  suddenly 
assuming  duties  one  is  not  capable  of  performing  without 
a  course  of  preparatory  training,  that  do  the  mischief. 
The  worry  which  all  such  work  excites  is  a  bar  to  sound 
mental  and  nervous  health,  and  is  oftentimes  the  factor 
which  turns  sanity  into  insanity. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  nerve  force  and  its  rapidity. 

2.  How  is  it  aroused  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  transferrence  of  nerve  force  ? 

4.  By  what  forms  of  transjnission  of  nerve  force  are  nervous  actions 

rendered  possible  ? 

5.  What  is  reflex  action,  and  what  is  essential  for  its  performance  ? 

6.  When  are  reflex  actions  recognized  by  the  person  in  whom  they 

occur? 

7.  Give  some  examples  of  reflex  actions  of  which  we  are  conscious, 

but  over  which  we  have  little  or  no  control. 

8.  Describe  the  reflex  actions  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system ; 

of  the  spinal  cord. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  artificial  reflex  actions? 

10.  What  is  the  diiference  between  reflex  actions  in  health  and  disease? 

11.  What  is  said  as  to  the  quantity  of  nerve  force  and  nervous  energy 

which  each  person  possesses? 

12.  How  may  nerve  force  be  abused? 

13.  How  can  mental  and  nervous  health  be  best  produced  and  main- 

tained? 


256  ANALYSIS. 


ANALYSIS  OF  CHAPTERS  FOURTEEN  AND  FIFTEEN 


THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 


I.  Anatomy. 

r  The  cerebro  spinal |  Brain  and  spinal  cord, 

Divisions  .  .  J  C      with  then-  nerves. 

I  Sympathetic  or  ganglionic.  .  \  ^^^^'^^"^  ^^^^^^"^  ^^^ 


nerves. 


Sh-ucture  .  .  ]  White  nervous  matter  |  Ne-efflan.ents  or  fibres. 
(  Gray  nervous  matter,  —  Cells,  etc. 

Arrangement  \  ^/"^^^^  (including  brain). 

°  (  JNerves,  smgle  and  combmed  ni  columns. 

r  Coverings  of  Brain. 
Protection  .  .  i  "  Spinal  cord. 

[.  "  Nerves. 

Nutrition,  or  blood  supply. 


II.  Physiology. 

r  To  furnish  nervous  irritability. 
Function   .  .  J  ^^  provide  sensation,  motion,  etc. 

1  To  harmonize  all  the  processes  and  movements  of  the 
I      body. 

f  How  and  where  aroused. 

The  agent,  — Nerve  force ^  How  transmitted. 

I  Effects  of. 


III.  Hygiene. 

Proper  Stinmlation. 
"       Nourishment. 
"       Kest. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

SENSATIONS.  — THE   SENSES:    TOUCH, 
TASTE,   AND   SMELL. 

352.  The  mind,  by  means  of  sensations^  obtains  a 
knowledge,  first,  of  the  condition  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  body ;  and  second,  of  external  objects  and  phenomena. 
The  first-named  class  may  be  termed  common  sensations; 
the  second,  the  special  sensations  or  the  senses.  Under  the 
first  head  are  those  which  'cannot  be  distinctly  localized, 
such  as  fatigue,  discomfort,  and  faintness,  and  also  such 
sensations  as  itching,  creeping,  tickling,  aching,  and 
burning.  Tactile  sensation,  or  that  obtained  by  "con- 
tact," constitutes  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  sense 
of  touch.  The  line  of  demarcation  between  many  of  the 
common  sensations  and  this  sense  is  not  a  clear  one.  In 
fact,  as  Kirke  ^  says,  though  "  touch  is  usually  classed  with 
the  special  senses  ...  it  forms  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  general  and  special  sensations";  for  the  sensa- 
tions produced  by  stimulation  of  the  nerves  of  the  skin 
and  of  certain  portions  of  the  mucous  membrane  are 
numerous.  Of  these  may  be  named  the  sensations  of 
ordinary  touch,  of  weight,  heat,  cold,  and  tickling,  and,  if 
the  stimulation  is  strong,  of  pain.  Some  parts  of  the 
skin  are  more  sensitive  to  certain  impressions  than  to 
others,  and  at  times  one  sensation  in  a  part  is  experienced 
after  others  are  lost.  Pain  is  probably  more  easily  induced 
in  the  face  than  elsewhere.  The  cheeks  and  ears  seem  to  be 
more  sensitive  to  the  changes  of  atmospheric  temperature 

1  Handbook  of  Physiology. 


258  SENSATIONS. 

than  other  parts  of  the  face.  The  soles  of  the  feet,  the 
knees^and  the  armpits  are  particularly  sensitive  to  tickling. 
The  power  of  distinguishing  heat  and  cold  may  be  lost  in 
a  part,  as  in  paralysis,  and  yet  the  sensations  of  touch  and 
pain  remain ;  or  pain  may  be  prevented  by  anaesthetics 
before  the  sensation  of  touch  disappears. 

353.  The  sensation  of  weight,  resistance,  etc.,  is  called 
by  some  physiologists  the  muscular  sense^  from  the  belief 
that  to  a  great  extent  it  is  dependent  upon  the  muscular 
nerves,  and  is,  therefore,  a  peculiar  property  of  muscles. 
It  is  most  developed  in  those  parts  of  the  body  where  the 
tactile  sensibility  is  the  keenest,  and  is  probably  due  in 
part  to  the  relative  amount  oi  the  pressure  of  bodies  upon 
those  parts,  and  also  to  the  relative  amount  of  nervous 
and  muscular  energy  expended  in  sustaining  or  resisting 
bodies.  It  is  an  aid  in  enabling  us  to  appreciate  the  "resis- 
tance, immobility,  and  elasticity  of  substances  that  are 
grasped,  or  on  which  we  tread,  or  which  by  their  weight 
are  opposed  to  the  exertion  of  muscular  power."  ^  Habit 
and  education  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  this  sensation. 
It  is  astonishing  with  what  accuracy  experts  will  detect  a 
departure  from  the  standard  weight  in  handling  barrels  of 
flour  and  other  packages,  including  even  such  light  arti- 
cles as  coins. 

354.  Fortunately,  in  health,  the  application  of  stimuli^ 
beyond  what  may  he  considered  in  each  individual  the 
fiatural  limit  of  stimulation^  is  attended  by  discomfort  or 
pain.  Tickling,  for  example,  at  first  may  not  be  unpleas- 
ant, but  if  persisted  in,  is  liable  to  become  exceedingly 
disagreeable  and  painful,  and  may  be  carried  to  such  a 
point  as  to  become  dangerous.  "  The  muscles,  though 
they  are   not  very  sensitive   organs  to   ordinary  stimuli, 

1  Text-book  of  Physiology.    Flint. 


THE   SENSES  —  TOUCH,  TASTE,  AND  SMELL.  259 

yet,  when  contracted  spasmodically,  occasion  severe  pain. 
They  ache  when  fatigued,  and  pain  is  felt  when  they  are 
contused  or  cut."  Sunlight,  too,  so  necessary  for  health 
and  comfort,  if  intense  and  shining  into  one's  eyes,  will 
produce  pain  and  blindness.  Long-continued  and  high- 
pitched  sounds  also  fail  at  length  to  be  appreciated  as 
sounds,  and  produce  only  painful  sensations.  This  sensi- 
bility to  pain  guards  us  from  many  and  great  dangers. 
Those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  the  most  subject  to 
injury  are  supplied  with  nerves  in  the  largest  quantity, 
and  are  most  sensitive.  A  cut  into  the  skin,  or  the  applica- 
tion to  it  of  heat,  cold,  or  other  irritant,  ordinarily  causes 
pain ;  but  the  structures  beneath  the  skin  are  comparatively 
insensitive.^  The  eye,  also,  so  necessary  to  a  pleasurable 
existence,  is  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves  of  sensation. 

365.  Were  it  not  for  this  sensibility  to  pain,  important 
parts  of  the  body  might  be  irreparably  injured  with- 
out the  knowledge  of  the  individual.  Thus,  the  skin 
might  be  almost  boiled  by  the  hot  water  of  a  bath,  or 
roasted  by  exposure  to  a  hot  fire,  or  the  eye  might  become 
intensely  inflamed  by  long  exposure  to  bright  sunlight,  or 
by  the  continuance  therein  of  foreign  particles  which  have 
lodged  upon  the  surface  of  the  ball.  This  sensibility 
undoubtedly  differs  in  degree  in  men  and  animals.^  In 
man  it  probably  bears  some  relation  to  the  development 
of  the  intellect.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
among  physicians  and  surgeons,  that  some  persons  suffer 
more  than  others  who  are  afflicted  with  the  same  diseases 
or  injuries. 

1  In  a  surgical  operation,  cutting  through  the  skin  is  the  most  painful  step. 
but  this  pain  is  very  frequently  diminished  or  avoided  by  the  application  of 
cold  to  the  part,  by  means  of  ether  spray  or  other  quickly  evaporating  material. 

2  "  Blooded  "  horses  are  much  more  sensitive  and  more  keenly  alive  to  pain 
than  the  average  dray  or  work  horse. 


260  SENSATIONS. 

356.  The  special  sensations^  or  the  senses^  are  generally 
spoken  of  as  five  in  number ;  viz.,  touch,  taste,  smell,  sight, 
and  hearing.^  All  of  the  organs  of  special  sense  are, 
however,  but  the  working  tools  of  the  brain.  Hence, 
to  perform  their  wonderful  work  aright,  not  only  should 
they  be  perfect  in  structure,  but  the  brain  also,  and  the 
special  nerves  which  connect  these  organs  with  the  brain, 
should  be  in  an  alert  and  healthy  condition,^  otherwise  it 
may  be  that  we  shall  neither  hear  with  the  ears,  nor  see 
with  the  eyes,  nor  taste  with  the  tongue,  nor  handle  with 
the  hands.  During  deep  sleep,  for  example,  impressions 
of  sound  may  be  presented  to  the  ear,  or  of  chilliness  to 
the  skin,  and  they  will  not  be  perceived.  During  the  deep 
sleep  produced  by  anaesthetics,  great  surgical  operations 
are  performed  without  the  knowledge  of  the  individ- 
ual operated  upon.  But  when  the  sleep  so  produced  is 
not  profound,  the  various  steps  of  an  operation  may  be 
recognized  and  afterwards  remembered,  though  the  ability 
to  move  and  the  perception  of  pain  may  be  absent. 

357.  It  is  to  be  especially  noted,  first,  that  each  nerve 
of  sense  is  only  capable  of  performing  the  function  de- 
signed for  it.  The  nerve  of  sight  does  not  enable  us  to 
hear,  and  the  nerve  of  smell  only  enables  us  to  appreciate 
odors;  second,  cultivation  of  the  senses,  especially  if 
begun  in  early  life,  will  develop  their  usefulness,  but  the 
training  may  be  carried  to  the  extent   of  making  them 

1  Some  physiologists,  believing  that  the  several  sensations  produced  by 
stimulation  of  the  cutaneous  nerves,  and  of  those  of  certain  portions  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  are  effected  through  distinct  sets  of  nerve  fibres,  enumerate 
as  among  the  senses  the  sense  of  pressure,  of  temperature,  of  pain,  etc.  Others 
claim  that  all  the  senses  are  but  modifications  of  the  sense  of  touch. 

2  As  sight,  hearing,  and  touch  seem  to  be  most  concerned  with  the  wants  of 
the  intellect,  they  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  intellectual  senses ;  while 
taste  and  smell,  being  intimately  connected  with  nutrition,  are  known  as  the 
corporeal  senses. 


THE  SENSES  —  TOUCH,  TASTE,  AND  SMELL.  261 

sources  of  misery.  Certain  persons  are  painfully  con- 
scious of  the  slightest  discord;  others  almost  instantane- 
ously detect,  with  a  feeling  of  disgust,  the  inharmonious 
blending  of  tints  which,  to  the  average  person,  is  a  har- 
monious one ;  others  still  are  made  uncomfortable  by  an 
odor  which  is  perceptible  to  no  one  but  themselves.  Cul- 
tivation furnishes  the  accurate  hearing  of  the  educated 
musician,  the  keen  eyesight  of  the  reliable  pilot,  engineer, 
and  expert  microscopist,  and  the  accurate  touch  of  the 
blind. 

358.  That  provision  by  which  we  appreciate  by  actual 
contact  the  size,  form,  and  character  of  the  surface  of 
objects,  is  the  sense  of  touch,  and  is  most  acute  where  the 
tactile  corpuscles  are  most  numerous,  as  in  the  tip  of  the 
tongue,  the  under  surface  of  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  and 
the  palms  of  the  hands.  It  is  least  acute  on  the  middle 
of  the  back.i 

369.  The  human  hands,  with  their  long  flexible 
fingers  and  very  adjustable  thumbs,  with  their  beautiful 
adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  whole  upper  extremity, 
and  with  their  average  of  20,000  papillae  to  each  square 
inch  of  surface,  are  the  parts  of  the  body  most  usually 
employed  in  the  exercise  of  the  sense  of  touch.^  The  sen- 
sitive tips  of  the  fingers,  protected  though  they  be  by  the 
epidermis,  nails,  and  cushions  of  fat,  enable  us  to  feel  accu- 

1  The  delicacy  of  the  tactile  sensation  may  be  measured  by  lightly  applying 
at  one  time  the  two  points  of  a  pair  of  compasses  to  any  part  of  the  integu- 
ment, the  eyes  being  closed.  In  proportion  as  the  parts  tested  are  sensitive 
will  the  two  points  be  perceived  as  two  points  when  brought  very  close  together. 
In  this  way  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  palmar  surfaces  of  fingers  and 
hands  are  more  sensitive  than  the  dorsal  surfaces,  the  front  of  the  body  than 
the  rear. 

2  In  the  cat  and  seal,  for  example,  feeling  is  in  part  effected  through  the 
long  bristles  upon  the  lips,  which  are  connected  at  their  bases  with  nerve  papil- 
lae. In  some  monkeys  the  extreme  end  of  the  tail,  and  in  the  elephant  the 
trunk,  are  organs  of  touch. 


262  SENSATIONS. 

lately,  while  we  are  saved  from  much  of  the  pain  that 
would  otherwise  ensue,  if  the  fingers  were  not  so  pro- 
tected. If  the  cuticle  should  become  removed,  and  the 
ends  of  the  sensitive  nerves  be  exposed  to  the  air,  pain 
would  result,  and  the  sense  of  touch  be  lost. 

360.  Touch  is  the  simplest  of  all  the  senses,  and  the 
one  which  is  apparently  first  developed  in  the  infant,  and 
is  common  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  forms  of  ani- 
mal life.  Simple  as  the  sense  is,  it  is  capable  of  wonder- 
ful development,  especially  in  persons  deprived  of  one  or 
more  of  the  other  senses.  The  blind  learn  to  read  by 
means  of  slightly  raised  letters,  to  recognize  persons  by 
feeling  their  faces,  to  distinguish  by  touch  the  different 
plants,  the  minute  markings  upon  precious  stones,  the  deli- 
cate tracery  upon  works  of  art,  and,  assisted  by  the  sense 
of  smell,  even  the  color  of  fabrics.^  They  may  become  ex- 
pert musicians  and  also  good  sculptors,  for  it  is  related  of 
the  blind  sculptor,  Giovanni  Gonelli,  that  he  could  model 
the  most  striking  likenesses,  entirely  by  the  sense  of  touch. 
Physicians,  by  education,  may  acquire  the  factus  eruditus^ 
or  discriminating  touch,  which  is  so  valuable  in  detecting 
any  unusual  thickening,  swelling,  heat,  etc.,  of  parts.^  The 
expert  pianist  acquires  the  ability  to  handle  Avith  precision 
many  keys  in  a  few  seconds  of  time,  while  the  compositor 
accurately  sets  type  with  almost  incredible  rapidity. 

361.  Taste  is  the  sense  by  which  we  discover  and  recog- 
nize the  flavors  of  substances.     It  is  made  possible  through 

1  It  is  said  that  a  blind  country  merchant  was  in  the  liabit  of  selecting 
shawls  and  dress  goods  for  various  lady  customers,  whenever  he  went  to  the 
large  cities  for  stock,  and  that  he  seldom  failed  in  taste  and  judgment. 

2  A  well-known  surgeon,  now  dead,  performed  during  his  lifetime  the  most 
delicate  operations,  which  required  the  keenest  sense  of  touch.  He  was  a 
large  and  rather  uncouth  looking  man,  and  l)is  hands  and  the  instruments  used 
by  him  were  much  larger  than  the  average  ;  but  the  operations  he  performed 
were  wonderfully  delicate. 


THE    SENSES  —  TOUCH,  TASTE,  AND  SMELL. 


263 


the  mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue,  of  the  soft  palate, 
and  of  the  back  part  of  the  throat,  these  being,  in  fact,  the 
"organs  of  taste."  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  tongue  is 
especially  adapted  to  this  pur- 
pose. It  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  both  vascular  and  nervous 
papillae,  similar  to  those  of  the 
skin  ;  and,  in  addition,  there  are 
large  compound  papillae  on  the 
back  part  of  the  tongue,  arranged 
in  a  V  shape,  and  also  smaller 
ones  towards  the  front  part. 
The  papillae  are  covered  with 
a  plush-like  epithelium,  very 
delicate,  permeable  by  fluids,  and  some  of  them  contain 
simple  terminal  branches  or  loops  of  nerves. 

362.    The  tongue  possesses,  as  we  have  seen,  general 
sensibility ;  but  the  sense  of  taste  has  no  distinct  nerve. 


Fig.  76. 

Papillae  of  the  tongue.  —  Magnified 

20  diameters. 


Fig.  77.     (Dalton.) 

Diagram  of  tongue,  showing  the  nerves  and  papillae,  and  by  dotted  lines  the 

direction  of  the  muscles. 


as  in  the  case  of  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing.  The 
lingual  or  gustatory  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial 
nerves  supplies  about  two-thirds  of  the  tongue,  while  the 


264  SENSATIONS. 

lingual  branch  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal  is  distributed  to 
the  posterior  third.  These  nerves  convey  sensations  of 
taste  to  the  brain.  The  tip  of  the  tongue  seems  to  pos- 
sess the  greatest  sensibility  to  savors,  next  the  base,  and 
after  tliis  the  sides. 

303.  Only  those  substances  can  he  tasted  which  are 
dissolved.  These,  by  endosmosis,  penetrate  the  mucous 
membrane,  thus  reaching  the  nerves  of  taste.  Accord- 
ingly, dry  sugar  or  salt,  placed  upon  the  tongue,  is  not 
tasted  till  it  begins  to  dissolve.  The  finer  the  comminu- 
tion of  food,  the  sooner  is  it  dissolved  and  tasted.  The 
dissolving  process  is  much  facilitated  by  the  varied  move- 
ments of  the  tongue. 

364.  Taste  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  we  distin- 
guish between  proper  and  improper  articles  of  food.  But 
in  determining  the  nature  of  such  articles,  it  is  assisted  by 
the  other  senses.  Undoubtedly  much  pleasure  is  lent  to 
the  taste  of  certain  substances  by  their  appearance  and 
odor.  Hence,  a  "  cold  in  the  head  "  will  interfere  with  the 
taste.  The  practice  of  swallowing  disagreeable  medicines 
with  the  nostrils  closed  is  quite  common.  It  has  even 
been  affirmed  that,  if  the  nostrils  are  closed  and  the  eyes 
shut,  the  taste  of  an  onion  may  be  mistaken  for  that  of  an 
apple.  The  sense  of  taste,  which  in  man  is  naturally 
more  acute  than  that  of  smell,  is  more  easily  perverted ; 
whereas,  in  some  of  the  lower  animals  —  dogs  for  example, 
—  the  sense  of  smell  is  more  acute,  so  that  these  animals 
generally  smell  before  they  taste. 

365.  Such  qualities  as  those  called  "watery,"  "astrin- 
gent," "viscid,"  "oily,"  "burning,"  "mild"  and  "sharp" 
are  appreciated  by  the  ordinary  sensory  nerves.  "  Sweet " 
and  "  sour  "  qualifies  are  believed  to  be  appreciated,  in  the 
main,  by  the  gustatory  nerve  at  the  front  of  the  tongue ; 


THE   SENSES  —  TOUCH,  TASTE,  AND  SMELL.  265 

"salt"  and  "bitter"  qualities,  by  the  other  nerve  of  taste 
towards  the  back  of  the  tongue. 

366.  Taste  in  the  human  being,  and  also  in  some  of 
the  lower  animals,  is  more  or  less  influenced  hy  imitatio7i^ 
habit,  surroundings,  and  training.^  The  young  baby  does 
not  readily  distinguish  between  the  taste  of  oil  and  that 
of  sugar,  but  learns  the  difference  by  degrees.  Children 
fancy  certain  articles  of  food  and  dislike  others,  because 
other  members  of  the  family  or  their  schoolmates  do  the 
same.  Persons  living  in  malarious  regions  have  been 
known  to  like  the  bitter  taste  of  quinine.  Inhabitants  of 
certain  parts  of  the  world  enjoy  rancid  fats.  Morbid 
tastes  are  sometimes  the  result  of  disease,  or  disorders  of 
the  brain  or  of  the  blood.  Persons  so  afflicted  Avill  eat 
with  avidity  slate  pencils  and  plaster,  drink  vinegar,  etc. 
That  taste  may  be  developed,  especially  when  assisted  by 
the  sense  of  smell,  is  seen  in  expert  tea  and  wine  tasters. 
The  tasting  too  frequently  of  strong  condiments  or  spices 
blunts  the  sense  of  taste  for  more  delicate  flavors ;  so  also 
does  the  frequent  tasting  of  any  one  article.  The  nerves 
of  taste  fully  appreciate  but  one  flavor  at  any  one  time,  so 
that  if  one  is  presented  before  another  has  disappeared, 
the  result  is  a  mixed  or  confused  taste. 

367.  In  man  the  sense  of  smell  is  not  so  acute  as  the 
other  senses,  and  its  impressions  often  need  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  others,  (a.)  In  dogs,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
very  acute,  enabling  them  to  track  their  prey  and  find 
their  masters  by  scent  alone.  It  is  said  that  the  Esqui- 
maux dogs  in  the  Arctic  regions  are  of  great  value, 
because  they  can  detect  by  the  sense  of  smell  supplies  of 

1  When  tomatoes  were  first  introduced  into  this  country  they  were  gener- 
ally disliked.  Many  a  man,  who  will  not  eat  fat  salt  i>ork  at  home,  will  relish 
it  at  sea  or  in  the  army. 


266 


SENSATIONS. 


food  which  may  be  stored  in  the  ice  long  distances  away. 
By  this  sense  animals  escape  from  their  pursuers,  if  they 
are  to  the  windward  of  them. 

368.  The  essential  organ  of  smell  is  the  upper  half  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  fossae  or  nose  cavities. 
These  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  vertical  wall, 
called  the  septum^  partly  cartilaginous  and  in  part  of  bone. 
In  the  mucous  membrane  which  covers  part  of  the  septum, 


Fig.  78. 

Left  nasal  cavity.  —1,  left  olfactory  bulb  with  its  nerve  branches;  2,  the  nasal  nerve; 

3,  a  ganglion,  and  nerves  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 

and  on  the  two  upper  turbinated  bones,  are  distributed  the 
terminal  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve^  or  nerve  of  smell. 
These  filaments  come  through  the  roof  of  the  fossae,  as 
through  a  sieve,  from  the  olfactory  bulbs  which  are  the 
terminations  of  the  olfactory  nerves.  These  bulbs  lie 
under  the  anterior  portion  of  the  cerebrum,  and  upon  the 
bony  floor  of  the  cranial  cavity.  (Fig.  78.)  The  lower 
half  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  is  supplied  witli 
ordinary  sensibility  by  a  nasal  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
cranial  nerves.     Its  irritation  causes  sneezing. 


THE   SENSES  —  TOUCH,  TASTE,  AND  SMELL.  267 

369.  Odors,  to  be  recognized,  must  be  presented  in  a 
gaseous  or  vaporous  form  to  the  mucous  membrane  con- 
taining the  olfactory  nerve  filaments.  The  most  minute 
portion  of  such  a  substance  as  musk  will  be  readily  per- 
ceived, if  it  be  forcibly  drawn  up  during  inspiration  into 
the  higher  portions  of  the  nasal  fossae.  Some  persons  are 
so  susceptible  to  odors  and  emanations,  that  the  smell  of 
certain  substances,  of  roses,  for  example,  or  of  new-mown 
hay,  or  of  certain  drugs  in  a  powdered  state,  may  excite 
in  them  an  inflammation  of  the  nasal  passages.^  Sharp  and 
pungent  vapors,  such  as  that  of  hartshorn,  are  perceived 
by  the  lower  portions  of  the  nasal  passages. 

370.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  sense  of  smell  may  be 
highly  developed,  especially  in  conjunction  with  that  of 
the  other  senses,  or  in  case  these  are  deficient.  It  is 
related  that  a  certain  blind  and  deaf  mute  was  able  to 
recognize  by  the  sense  of  smell  any  person  with  whom  he 
had  previously  come  in  contact.  Dryness  of  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane,  or  its  frequent  irritation,  tend  to  blunt 
the  sense  of  smell. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  are  sensations  valuable? 

2.  How  may  they  be  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  excessive  stimulation  of  nerves  ? 

4.  What  useful  purpose  has  pain  ?    Give  exampltes. 

5.  What  parts  of  the  body  are  in  general  most  sensitive?    Name 

some  of  them. 

6.  What  have  you  to  say  of  the  sensitiveness  of  different  individ- 

uals among  men  and  animals  ? 

7.  Name  some  of  the  sensations  experienced  through  the  nerves  of 

the  skin. 

8.  How  many  special  senses  are  usually  reckoned?  » 

9.  To  what  is  the  sensation  of  weight  probably  due  ? 

1  Hay  fever,  a  form  of  such  inflammation,  is  believed  to  be  induced  by  the 
pollen  of  the  rag-weed,  among  other  things. 


268  SENSATIONS. 

10.  What  is  necessary  to  a  healthy  exercise  of  all  the  senses? 

11.  Show  by  examples  how  the  brain  is  necessary  to  sensation. 

12.  Are  the  functions  of  the  nerves  of  the  special  senses  distinct  from 

one  another? 

13.  Can  these  senses  be  cultivated?     How  do  we  know  this? 

14.  What  are  the  objects  of  the  sense  of  touch? 

15.  In  what  part  of  the  body  is  the  sense  the  most  delicate? 

16.  What  service  is  rendered  to  the  sensation  by  certain  tissues,  which 

are  entirely  destitute  of  it,  such  as  the  nails,  the  epidermis, 
and  the  fat  ? 

17.  How  does  touch  compare  with  the  other  senses,  as  to  simplicity 

and  early  development? 

18.  What  have  you  to  say  as  to  its  capacity  for  varied  application  and 

training?    Illustrate. 

19.  What  are  the  organs  of  taste  ? 

20.  How  is  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue  adapted  to  the  exer- 

cise of  this  function  ? 

21.  Is  there  a  distinct  nerve  of  taste,  like  the  optic  nerve  for  seeing, 

and  the  auditory  nerve  for  hearing  ? 

22.  What  takes  the  place  of  such  a  nerve  ? 

23.  Where  is  there  the  greatest  sensibility  to  savors? 

24.  In  what  form  must  substances  be  to  be  tasted  ?    Why  ? 

25.  What  relation  has  this  fact  to  the  chewing  of  food? 

26.  Of  what  use  is  taste  in  addition  to  its  appetizing  quality? 

27.  Do  the  other  senses  lend  any  intensity  to  the  taste  ?    Illustrate. 

28.  By  which  of  the  organs  of  taste,  respectively,  are  the  several  qual- 

ities of  objects  supposed  to  be  detected  or  appreciated  ? 

29.  By  what  is  the  taste  more  or  less  influenced  ?     Illustrate. 

30.  To  what  are  morbid  tastes  sometimes  due  ? 

31.  Give  an  instance  of  the  capacity  of  the  taste  for  delicate  training. 

32.  How  may  the  sense  be  blunted? 

33.  How  does  the  development  of  the  sense  of  smell  in  man  compare 

with  that  of  the  other  senses? 

34.  Illustrate  the  bluntness  of  the  sense  by  comparison  with  the  lower 

animals. 

35.  What  is  the  essential  organ  of  smell?     Describe  it. 

3,6.  How  is  the  lower  half  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  sup- 
plied with  ordinary  sensibility? 

37.  In  what  form  must  odors  be  presented  to  be  appreciated  ? 

38.  Illustrate  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  certain  persons  to  odors. 

39.  Can  the  sense  be  trained?    Illustrate. 


ANALYSIS. 


269 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   SIXTEENTH  CHAPTER. 


SENSATIONS. 


I.  Object 


...{ 


To  gain  information,  —  first,  as  to  the  condition 
of  the  body ;  second,  as  to  external  objects  and 
phenomena. 


II.  Kinds    .  .  . 


p  (  Fatigue,  faintness,  etc.,  —  Generalized, 

r  l^ommon  |  jj^i^ij^g^  aching,  etc.,  —  Localized. 

I  Special,  _  ne  Senses  \  ^'^^''\l:^tX:  "'"' 


III.  Organs.  . 


r  Skin 
Muscles 

Portions  of  mucous  membrane 
The  eye 
The  ear 
Internal  organs  (occasionally)    , 


With  sensitive 

nerves  and  their 

connecting 

nerve  centres. 


IV.  5  Proper  stimulation. 

Requirements    (  Rest. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

SIGHT. 

371.  By  means  of  sight  we  receive  impressions  of  light, 
movement,  and  distance,  the  form,  size,  shades  of  color, 
and  other  general  properties  of  objects,  and,  in  general,  the 
manifold  beauties  of  nature  and  art.  The  organ  of  sight 
is  the  eye^  and  the  parts  belonging  to  the  eye,  or  auxiliary 
to  its  use,  are  the  eyeball,  eyebrow,  eyelids,  ciliae  or  eye- 
lashes, lachrymal  and  Meibomian  glands,  tear  passages, 
muscles,  and  optic  nerve. 

372.  Each  eyeball  rests  in  an  orbital  cavity  partially 
surrounded  by  cushions  of  fat.  The  orbits  are  deep  and 
conical,  and  are  formed  by  the  junction  of  various  bones. 
Their  upper  and  front  edges  project  and  overhang  their 
openings,  thus  forming  the  brows,  which  are  covered  with 
thick  skin,  and  short,  strong  hairs.  The  eyebrows,  with 
the  other  projecting  walls  of  the  orbits,  and  the  nose, 
serve  to  protect  the  eyes  from  injury.  The  hairs  of  the 
eyebrows  prevent  the  perspiration  from  flowing  into  the 
eyes,  by  directing  it  towards  the  cheeks. 

373.  In  front  of  each  orbit  are  two  movable  curtains, 
known  as  the  upper  and  lower  eyelids,  the  upper  being  more 
movable  than  the  lower.  When  closed,  they  cover  the 
orbital  openings.  Both  have  upon  their  edges  hairs  (eye- 
lashes^ which  project  outwardly,  and  when  the  lids  are 
closed,  or  even  partially  closed,  interlace  with  each  other, 
forming  an    admirable  screen.     Their  bulbs  are  supplied 


SIGHT.  271 

with  nerves.     They  are  sensitive,  and  give  warning  of  the 
approach  of  insects,  dust,  etc.,  even  in  the  dark. 

In  some  persons  the  eyelashes  are  long  and  silky,  while 
in  others  they  are  short  and  stiff.^  A  thin,  loose  skin 
covers  the  lids  upon  the  outside.  Their  inner  lining  is  a 
thin  mucous  membrane,  the  conjunctiva^  which  also  covers 
the  front  of  the  eyeballs.  This  membrane  is  extremely 
sensitive,  and  aids  the  eyelashes  in  protecting  the  eye  from 
dust  and  other  foreign  particles.^  Between  the  skin  and 
conjunctiva  of  the  lids  are  cartilages,^  which  serve  to  pre- 
serve the  convexity  and  firmness  of  the  walls  of  the  lids. 
Between  the  cartilages  and  conjunctiva  are  the  Meibomian 
glands,  with  their  tubes  lying  in  grooves  in  the  cartilages. 
These  glands  secrete  an  oily  material  which  lubricates  the 
edges  of  the  lids,  thereby  preventing  them  from  adhering, 
and  the  tears  from  overflowing  upon  the  cheeks.*     The  lids 


1  Sometimes  when  the  lids  are  diseased  the  lashes  turn  inward  and  irritate 
the  eye. 

2  Conjunctivitis,  or  inflammation  of  this  membrane,  is  one  of  the  commonest 
affections  of  the  eyes,  especially  among  those  whose  general  health  is  deterio- 
rated, and  who  are  exposed  to  dusty  or  other  irritating  air,  as  in  factories  and 
some  tenements. 

"I  have  no  doubt  in  my  own  mind,"  says  Dr.  Loring,  the  well-known  ocu- 
list, "and  I  believe  it  is  universally  admitted,  that  vitiated  air  has  a  direct 
irritating  effect  on  all  mucous  membranes,  and  I  feel  convinced  from  my  own 
observation  that  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye  is  peculiarly  susceptible  to 
its  influence.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  repeated  attacks  of  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye,  which  have  occurred  in  a  vitiated  atmos- 
phere, and  which  have  resisted  all  curative  means,  are  often  cured  at  once,  and 
prevented  from  recurring,  when  a  wholesome  supply  of  air  is  obtained,  all 
other  conditions  remaining  the  same." 

In  Egypt,  owing  to  the  intense  heat,  to  the  high  winds,  and  clouds  of  sand, 
this  and  other  inflammations  of  the  eye  become  very  severe,  even  destroying 
the  organ.  It  is  said  that  many  of  the  Crusaders  in  the  Holy  Land  were  made 
blind  from  these  causes. 

3  Tarsal  cartilages. 

^  The  last  effect  will  be  better  understood  if  the  edges  of  a  cup  are  greased 
and  the  cup  is  filled  with  water.  The  surface  of  the  water  may  then  be 
made  higher  than  the  edge  of  tlie  cup,  without  the  water  overflowing 


272 


SIC^HT. 


distribute  moisture,  or  the  tear  secretion,  oyer  the  surfaces 
of  the  eyes,  and  assist  in  regulating  the  admission  of  light 
thereto,  and  they  protect  them  from  heat  and  cold,  and 
the  contact  of  foreign  particles,  dust,  insects,  etc.  The 
eye  is  closed  by  the  action  of  a  broad,  thin,  elliptical 
muscle  which  surrounds  the  orbit  and  spreads  out  upon 
the  lids.  By  it  the  skin  and  soft  parts  about  the  eye  are 
wrinkled  and  drawn  together  inward,  and  the  lids  firmly 
held  together. 


,J.G 


374.  At  the  external  and  upper  portion  of  the  orbits 
are  located  the  lachrymal  glands^  which  secrete  the  tears. 
This  watery  secretion,  like  the  insensible  perspiration,  is 
constant,  and  is  spread  by  the  lids  over  the  front  surface 
of  the  ball.     A  portion  is  carried  into  the  nose    through 

four  openings,  one  on  the  edge 
of  each  lid,  near  its  inner 
extremity.  These  openings 
may  be  readily  seen  by  evert- 
ing the  lids  while  looking  into 
a  mirror.  They  connect 
with  little  canals  (lachrymal 
canals),  which  communicate 
also  with  two  enlargements, 
called  the  lachrymal  or  tear 
sacs^-  and  these  latter  with 
the  nasal  ducts,  which  discharge  into  the  nose.  (Fig.  79.) 
The  tear  sacs,  together  with  the  nasal  ducts,  constitute 
the  lachrymal  canals.  The  lachrymal  secretion  keeps  the 
front  of  the  eyeballs  in  that  moist  and  transparent  con- 
dition which  is  necessary  for  clear  vision  and  comfort. 
If  the  eye  should  become  dry,  as  it  does  sometimes, 
from  disease,  or  long  exposure  to  dry,  hot  winds,  it  be- 
comes clouded,  light  being  but  poorly  admitted  through 


'■i^s^-' 


Fig.  79. 

LG,  lachrymal  gland;  TD,  openings  of 

tear  ducts;   LS,  lachrymal  sac;  ND, 

nasal  duct.     Skin  and  parts  external 


to  these  organs  removec 


SIGHT.  273 

it.i  Usually  this  secretion  passes  into  the  nasal  ducts 
after  performing  its  functions ;  but,  if  largely  increased  in 
quantity  by  emotion  or  irritation,  it  overflows  in  tears  upon 
the  cheeks ;  hence,  emotional  persons  readily  weep.^ 

375.  Each  eyeball  is  spherical  in  form^  and  has  the 
segment  of  a  smaller  and  more  prominent  sphere  fitted 
upon  its  anterior  portion,  somewhat  as  a  watch  glass  is  set 
into  its  case.  (Fig.  81.)  The  diameter  of  the  eye  from 
the  front  backwards  is  about  an  inch ;  the  transverse 
diameter  a  little  less.  The  segment  of  the  larger  sphere, 
forming  about  five-sixths  of  the  globe,  is  opaque,  while 
that  of  the  smaller  and  anterior  sphere,  the  cornea,  which 
is  without  blood-vessels,  is  transparent,  light  passing 
through  it  as  through  a  clear  window-glass.^ 

376.  The  posterior  five-sixths  of  each  eyeball  is  com- 
posed of  three  coats  or  tunics :  the  sclerotic,  choroid,  and 
retina.  The  sclerotic  coat  is  a  white,  firm,  fibrous  envelope 
of  the  posterior  five-sixths  of  each  eyeball.  It  has  but  few 
blood-vessels,  is  not  very  sensitive,  assists  in  maintaining 
the  globular  form  of  the  eyeball,  and  protects  the  delicate 
structures  within  it.  To  its  outer  surface  are  attached 
the  six  muscles,  four  straight  and  two  oblique,  which  are 
capable  of  moving  the  eyeball  in  nearly  all  directions. 
Upon  the  front  of  the  eye  the  sclerotic  coat  forms  what  is 

1  Lustreless  eyes  are  seen  in  fish  which  have  been  removed  for  a  time  from 
the  water.  In  some  forms  of  scrofulous  or  blood  disease  in  the  human  being, 
the  Meibomian  and  lachrymal  secretions  are  decreased  in  amount,  and  the  eyes 
become  bloodshot  and  cloudy,  giving  rise  to  the  peculiar  appearance  known  as 
"  blear-eyed,"  the  defect  being  enhanced  by  the  roughening  and  falling  out  of 
the  eyelashes. 

2  Sometimes,  also,  where  the  tissues  of  the  lower  lids  are  relaxed,  as  in  old 
persons,  and  the  lids  are  everted,  the  tears  overflow. 

3  The  cornea  can  be  best  seen  by  looking  at  it  in  the  human  being  from  the 
side,  or  by  observing  the  reflection  of  objects  upon  it.  In  looking  at  an  eye  in 
front,  we  look  through  the  cornea  and  aqueous  humor. 


274 


SIGHT. 


called  the  "white  of  the  eye,"  and  is  covered  by  the  con- 
junctiva. In  its  inner  surface  are  lodged  the  ciliary 
nerves.  Behind,  and  a  little  to  the  inner  side,  it  is  pierced 
by  the  filaments  of  the  optic  nerve^  or  nerve  of  sight.,  whose 
fibrous  sheath  is  continuous  with  the  dura  mater  of  the 
brain.  Along  with,  and  in  the  centre  of,  the  filaments, 
there  passes  into  the  eye  a  large  central  artery,  which  is 
distributed  to  the  lining  coat.     Other  blood-vessels,  and 


Fig.  80. 
Muscles  of  the  eye.  —  1,  the  muscle  which  lifts  the  upper  lid  ;    2,   the  superior 
oblique  muscle ;  3,  the  pulley  through  which  its  tendon  plays  ;  4,  5,  6,  superior, 
inferior,  and  external  straight  muscles ;   10,  inferior  oblique  muscle ;   11,  optic 
nerve;  12,  cut  surface  of  cheek  bone ;  13,  nasal  orifice. 

also  some  of  the  ciliary  nerves,  pass  into  the  eye,  along 
with  the  optic  nerve,  through  an  opening  in  the  bottom  of 
the  orbit. 

377.  The  choroid^  sometimes  called  the  vascular  coat.,  is 
the  middle  coat  of  the  eye,  and  is  closely  adherent  to  the 
inner  surface  of  the  sclerotic.  It  is  soft,  containing  a  net- 
work of  blood-vessels,  and  is  of  a  dark  color,  like  the 
inside   of  the   skin   of  a   dark  grape,  being   lined  with  a 


SIGHT.  275 

layer  of  flat,  dark-brown,  or  nearly  black,  pigment  cells. 
This  dark  surface  absorbs  such  of  the  rays  of  light  which 
enter  the  e3^e  as  would  otherwise  be  reflected  and  diffused, 
and  prevent  accurate  vision.  In  Albinos,  also  in  white 
rabbits,  and  other  animals  having  red  or  pink  eyes,  the 
pigment  cells  are  deficient,  and  accordingly  vision  is 
imperfect,  especially  in  the  day-time,  or  when  the  eyes  are 
exposed  to  strong  light. 

378.  A  prolongation  of  the  choroid,  in  the  front  of  the 
eye,  forms  the  iris,  which  is  a  curtain  across  the  interior  of 
the  eye,  behind  the  cornea,  at  the  margin  of  which  it  is  at- 
tached. In  its  centre  is  the  jjupil,  a  round  opening,  through 
which  all  light  that  enters  the  back  part  of  the  eye  must 
pass.i  The  iris  is  a  muscular  organ  having  two  sets  of  fibres, 
circular  and  radiating.  Through  the  involuntary  action  of 
these  fibres  the  pupil  contracts  or  dilates,  when  exposed 
to  greater  or  less  light,  thus  performing  its  function  of 
regulating  the  amount  of  light  admitted  to  the  retina. 
But  the  pupil  does  not  act  instantaneously;  hence,  on 
coming  into  a  bright  light  from  a  dark  room,  or  going  into 
a  dark  room  from  the  bright  sunlight,  vision  is  confused 
until  the  proper  amount  of  light  has  been  excluded  or 
admitted,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  the  contraction,  or  expan- 
sion of  the  pupil,  and  until  the  retina  also  has  accommo- 
dated itself  to  the  change.     Certain  medicinal  substances 

^  The  shape  of  the  pupil  diifers  in  different  animals.  In  the  cat  it  is  a  nar- 
row, horizontal  slit  when  contracted,  and  is  round  when  dilated.  Capable  of 
great  dilatation,  it  enables  the  cat  to  see  even  in  the  dark.  In  the  human  eye 
the  pupil  seems  black,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Albino.  The  black  appearance 
is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  looking  at  the  pupil,  we  look  into  a  dark  chamber  at 
the  back.  In  the  Albino,  the  pigment  cells  being  deficient,  we  see  the  pinkish 
color  afforded  by  the  blood-vessels.  In  certain  nocturnal  animals,  such  as 
wolves  and  cats,  in  obscure  light  the  pupil  presents  a  sparkling  or  glaring 
appearance,  which  at  one  time  was  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  kind  of  phospho- 
rescence, but  is  now  recognized  as  a  reflection  from  a  patch  of  metallic  lustre 
found  upon  the  choroid  of  these  animals. 


276 


SIGHT. 


have  the  property  of  dilating,  and  others  of  contracting, 
the  pupil.  For  example,  belladonna,  or  atropine,  which  is 
its  active  principle,  taken  internally,  or  applied  to  or 
about  the  eye,  dilates  the  pupil,  while  opium  and  the 
Calabar  bean  contract  it.i     The  color  of  the  iris  varies. 


Fig.  81. 
Vertical  section  of  the  eyeball,  and  part  of  the  optic  nei*ve.  —  2,  sclerotic  coat; 
4  and  5,  external  and  internal  coverings  of  the  optic  nerve,  continuous  with 
those  of  the  sclerotic  coat;  8,  superior  and  inferior  straight  muscles;  9,  the 
cornea;  15,  the  choroid  coat;  17,  ciliary  muscle;  18,  ciUary  body;  23,  branches 
of  central  artery  of  the  retina;  28,  the  crystalline  lens  ;  29,  the  iris  ;  30,  the 
pupil  ;  32,  anterior  chamber. 

and  is  apt  to  be  in  accord  with  the  general  coloring  of  the 
individual.^  By  the  terms,  blue,  brown,  hazel,  gray,  or 
black  eyes,  the  color  of  the  iris  is  indicated.^  Just  behind 
the  iris,  towards  its  circumference,  lie  the  ciliary  muscle 


1  The  acts  of  dilatation  and  contraction  of  the  pupil  may  be  seen  by  alter- 
nately covering  the  eye  of  another  with  the  hand  for  a  moment,  and  then 
removing  it.  In  many  young  persons  considerable  dilatation  is  normal,  while 
the  same  is  true  of  contraction  in  some  old  persons.  Extreme  contraction  or 
dilatation  of  the  jnqnl  is  the  restilt  of  poisoning  or  of  disease. 

2  Sometimes  brunettes  are  seen  with  light  eyes,  and  blondes  with  dark  ones, 
and  occasionally  a  person  is  found  with  one  eye  light  and  the  other  dark. 

3  The  eyes  of  young  infants  are  almost  always  blue,  the  color  not  begin- 
ning to  change  until  the  sixth  or  eighth  week  of  life. 


SIGHT.  277 

and  also  the  ciliary  body,  a  dark  pigmented  mass,  arranged 
in  fluted  folds  known  as  the  "ciliary  processes"  (Fig.  81), 
which,  with  the  iris,  control  the  function  of  accommoda- 
tion, to  be  hereafter  described.^ 

379.  The  retina  is  the  third  coat,  and  lines  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  posterior  five-sixths  of  the  eyeball.^  It  is  a 
delicate,  transparent  membrane,  containing  an  expansion 
of  the  filaments  of  the  optic  nerve.  It  is  sensitive  only  to 
light.  A  jar  of  the  retina  or  optic  nerve  by  a  blow  upon 
the  head,  or  an  electric  shock  communicated  to  the  eyeball, 
or  any  irritation  applied  to  the  retina,  produces  flashes 
of  light,  —  an  effect  which  is  familiarly  termed  "seeing 
stars."  The  function  of  the  retina  is  to  receive  the  rays 
of  light  which,  emanating  from  objects,  enter  the  pupil 
of  the  eye,  and  communicate  the  impressions  thus  pro- 
duced through  the  optic  nerve  to  the  cerebrum.  The 
retina  is  not,  however,  equally  sensitive  to  light  through- 
out its  whole  extent.  The  point  of  entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve  is  insensible  to  light,  and  is  therefore  called  the 
"blind  spot,"^  while  from  one-twelfth  to  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  outwardly  from  this  point  in  each  eye  is  an  oval  spot 
called  the  "  yellow  spot,"  which  is  the  most  sensitive  part 
of  the  retina.     This  spot  is  directly  in  the  line  of  distinct 

1  The  iris,  ciliary  body,  and  choroid,  together  are  called  the  uveal  tract. 

2  Its  greatest  thickness  is  said  to  be  not  more  than  jIq  of  an  inch,  and 
microscopists  describe  eight  or  ten  different  layers  in  it.  An  outer  one  con- 
tains the  "rods"  and  "cones,"  which  are  most  intimately  concerned  in  the 
perception  of  light,  while  next  to  the  inner  coat  is  the  expansion  of  the  optic 
nerve, 

3  The  blind  spot  may  be  proved  by  a  simple  experiment.  Place  the  two 
thumbs  side  by  side  about  twelve  inches  from  the  face.  Shut  the  left  eye,  and 
look  at  the  left  thumb  intently  with  the  right  eye,  while  you  gradually  move 
the  right  thumb  away  from  it  toward  the  right.  At  a  certain  point,  generally 
about  six  or  seven  inches,  the  right  thumb  will  seem  to  disappear.  If  carried 
still  farther  away,  it  will  be  again  seen.  The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon 
is  that,  at  the  point  of  disappearance,  the  picture  of  the  thumb  falls  upon  the 
blind  spot. 


278  SIGHT. 

vision.^  Each  impression  received  by  the  retina  lasts  for 
a  time  before  fading  away.  If  impressions  are  received 
too  rapidly,  one  after  another,  vision  is  confused  or  dazzled, 
as  the  case  may  be,  or  the  objects  seem  to  be  one.  The 
old  impressions  are  retained  Avhile  the  new  ones  are  being 
received.  Thus,  the  spokes  of  a  rapidly-revolving  wheel 
seem  to  form  a  continuous  disk.  A  lighted  torch  rapidly 
revolved  shows  a  circle  of  light.  Two  colors  upon  a  card, 
if  rotated  rapidly,  are  confused  by  the  eye  into  a  blurred 
image,  or,  if  the  colors  be  primary,  the  complementary  sec- 
ondary color  is  perceived.2  The  retina  becomes  tired  and 
loses  its  sensibility  by  looking  for  a  long  time  steadily  at 
one  object,  and  the  sight  is  relieved  by  closing  the  eyes 
for  a  moment,  or  by  an  occasional  glance  at  other  objects.^ 

380.  Within  each  eyeball  are  three  transparent  media 
or  humors  :  the  aqueous  humor,  the  vitreous  (glass-like) 
humor,  and  the  crystalline  lens.  Enclosed  within  the 
retina  is  the  vitreous  humor.  It  is  a  colorless,  transparent, 
and  jelly-like  substance,  which  assists  in  preserving  the 
form  of  the  eyeball,  and  affords  support  to  the  delicate 
retina.  On  its  front,  in  a  cup-like  hollow,  rests  the 
crystalline  lens.  Between  the  lens  and  the  cornea  is  the 
aqueous  humor,  consisting  of  a  few  drops  of  a  watery  fluid 
in  which  the  iris  can  freely  move. 

381.  The  crystalline  lens  is  located  just  behind  the  iris 
and  in  front  of  the  vitreous  humor,  and  is  about  one-quar- 
ter of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  shaped  like  a  double  convex 

1  The  yellow  spot,  upon  which  the  rays  of  light  converge,  i.e.,  are  focussed, 
receives  impressions  through  the  motions  of  the  eyeball  from  side  to  side  as  in 
reading,  or  in  various  directions,  as  we  catch  at  a  glance  the  beauties  of  a 
landscape. 

2  Toys  for  children,  in  which  figures  seem  actually  to  be  in  motion,  are 
constructed  on  the  principle  stated  above. 

3  Looking  steadily  for  a  time  at  a  bright  light  or  spot  will  cause  it  to 
appear  dark.    After  rest  this  dark  color  disappears. 


SIGHT.  279 

lens  or  magnifying  glass,  and  is  contained  in  a  capsule, 
which  is  kept  in  place  by  a  so-called  suspensory  ligament, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  enclosing  membrane  of  the 
vitreous  humor. ^  The  lens  is  of  the  consistency  of  jelly, 
but  very  elastic,  especially  in  children ;  consequently,  in 
them  the  shape  is  very  readily  changed,  while  in  old  per- 
sons the  lens  is  quite  dense,  and  is  not  easily  changed. 

The  function  of  the  crystalline  lens  is  to  assist  the  cornea 
in  bringing  rays  of  light  to  a  point  or  "focus"  upon 
the  retina.  This  is  necessary  to  distinct  vision,  for,  without 
the  lens,  the  rays  would  not  be  thus  focussed,  and  sight 
would  be  blurred.  The  crystalline  lens,  being  convex, 
converges  the  rays  of  light  which  pass  through  it  to  a 
focal  point,  giving  at  that  point  an  inverted  image  of  the 
objects  from  which  the  rays  proceed.  So,  in  a  bright, 
direct  light,  by  means  of  a  convex  lens,  objects,  such  as 
trees,  drawings,  etc.,  may  be  pictured  upon  a  white  or 
light-colored  surface,  but  always  inverted,  or  upside  down. 
In  the  same  way,  through  the  crystalline  lens,  inverted 
images  are  formed  upon  the  retina.^  Notwithstanding 
this  inversion,  however,  in  normal  vision,  these  images  are 
seen  in  their  proper  positions  and  relations.  We  learn  to 
appreciate  the  size  and  form  of  objects  reflected  upon  the 
retina  by  comparison  and  experience.     As  it  is  the  brain 

1  Cataract  is  an  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  and  not  a  "  white  spot  on 
the  front  of  the  eye,"  as  some  believe.  It  may  affect  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
lens.  Usually  light  is  transmitted  through  the  lens  when  so  affected,  as  through 
a  ground  glass  window.  To  restore  transparent  media,  or  to  remove  the  irrita- 
tion which  such  opacity  may  set  up,  the  lens  may  be  removed  by  operation. 
When  removed,  vision  can  be  in  part  restored  by  the  use  of  spectacles  or  eye- 
glasses, i.e.,  artificial  lenses. 

2  A  candle  flame  held  before  the  cornea  of  an  eyeball  removed  from  a  bul- 
lock (the  sclerotic  and  choroid  on  the  posterior  of  the  eyeball  being  detached) 
will  be  seen  reflected  inverted  upon  the  retina.  When  the  lens  has  been 
removed  from  the  eye  by  operation,  the  focus  of  the  rays  of  light  falls  about 
three-eights  of  an  inch  behind  the  retina,  and  the  object  seems  much  larger 
than  it  really  is,  and  much  less  distinct. 


280  SIGHT. 

which  is  the  ultimate  organ  of  perception,  a  disordered 
brain  will  sometimes  perceive  distorted  images  in  objects 
of  which  the  retina  receives  correct  impressions;  hence, 
also,  apparent  vision  is  possible  without  any  retinal  impres- 
sion at  all,  the  disordered  brain  seeing  some  phantom 
image  of  its  own  creation.  It  is  in  this  way  that  in 
dreams  objects  appear  to  be  so  vividly  seen  that  they  may 
be  readily  described  when  the  sleeper  awakes. 

382.  All  the  various  directions  from  which  rays  of  light 
come  into  the  pupil,  taken  together,  form  what  is  known 
as  the  "  circle  "  or  "  held  of  vision."  Immediately  in  the 
centre  of  this  field  objects  can  be  most  distinctly  seen. 
To  enable  one  to  have  a  long  or  short  range  of  vision  at 
will,  to  see  remote  objects,  and  then,  within  an  incredibly 
short  time,  those  close  at  hand,  the  crystalline  lens  has  a 
power  of  accommodation.  But  objects  at  different  distances 
cannot  be  plainly  perceived  at  the  same  time.  The  lens 
in  each  case  must  be  accommodated  to  the  distance. 
Thus,  while  we  gaze  at  a  fly  upon  a  window  pane,  or  the 
threads  of  a  veil,  we  do  not  see  plainly  the  landscape 
beyond.  If  we  see  the  landscape  plainly,  the  fly  and  the 
threads  of  the  veil  become  indistinct.  This  accommoda- 
tion is  the  result  of  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  lens  pro- 
duced by  the  ciliary  muscle,  the  small  muscle  before 
mentioned,  which  encircles  the  lens  and  is  connected 
with  the  delicate  ligament  that  holds  the  lens  in  posi- 
tion. As  the  objects  looked  at  are  brought  near  the 
eye,  the  lens  becomes  more  and  more  convex.  When 
the  eye  is  at  rest,  or  when  objects  are  distant,  the  lens  is 
more  flattened.  The  ciliary  muscle  bears  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  eye  as  the  adjusting  screw  does  to  the  opera- 
glass,  photographer's  camera,  or  to  the  microscope.  The 
range  of  accommodation  is  limited,  and  differs  in  different 


SIGHT.  281 

individuals.  Ordinarily  accommodation  fails  and  vision 
is  imperfect  when  the  object  is  less  than  six  inches  from 
the  eye.  Outside  or  inside  of  each  one's  normal  limit  of 
vision,  or  where  the  lines  of  sight  no  longer  focus  or  meet, 
vision  becomes  imperfect  and  blurred.  The  average  eye 
is  able  to  recognize  type  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  in 


Fig.  82. 
Section  of  eye.  —  The  line  A-V  is  the  axis  of  vision ;  S,  sclerotic  coat ;  C,  the  cornea ; 
CO,  choroid  coat;  R,  retina;  VH,  vitreous  humor;  AH,  aqueous  humor;  CL, 
crystalline  lens;  I,  the  iris.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  position  of  the  iris  and 
the  shape  of  the  lens  in  accommodation  for  a  certain  distance;  CM,  ciliary 
muscle ;  SL,  suspensory  ligament  of  lens. 

height,  held  at  least  eighteen  inches  off,^  and  type  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  height  tw^enty  feet  away.  But  the 
ability  to  see  plainly  objects  at  a  distance,  or  near  the  eyes, 
can  be  developed  by  training.  The  pilot  clearly  defines 
objects  at  a  long  distance,  even  in  an  obscure  light,  w^hicli 
the  average  eye  could  not  even  distinguish.    On  the  other 

1  "  The  following  paragraph  from  Dr.  Snellen  of  Utrecht,  the  author  of  the 
test-types  in  general  use,  gives  a  specimen  of  letters  one-thirty-second  of  an 
inch  in  height  : 

"  We  have  adopted  as  proper  objects  square  letters,  the  limbs  of  which  have  a  diameter  equal  to  one- 
fifth  of  the  letters'  height.  Such  letters  are  clearly  distinguished  by  a  normal  eye  at  an  angle  of  five 
minutes.  As  the  limbs  and  subdivisions  of  the  letter  just  measure  one-fifth  of  their  height,  they  present 
themselves  at  an  angle  of  one  minute;  for  instance,  our  letter  C  shows  an  opening,  as  compared  with  the  O, 
of  one  minute  visual  angle.  In  testing  accuracy  of  vision,  we  accept  perfect  recognition,  and  not  uncertain 
perception,  of  the  letters.  " 


282  SIGHT. 

hand,  the  watch-maker's  eyesight  is  very  acute  for  objects 
near  at  hancl.^ 

383.  The  optic  nerves^  which  carry  impressions  from  the 
retinas  to  the  cerebrum,  are  inserted  into  the  posterior 
segment  of  the  eyeballs,  a  little  to  the  inner  side  of  their 
centres.  Passing  into  the  cavity  of  the  skull,  they  approach 
each  other  and  consolidate,  forming  what  is  known  as  the 
"optic  chiasm."  At  this  point  there  occurs  a  decussation 
of  a  portion  of  the  optic  nerve  fibres^  so  that  some  of  the 
filaments  pass  from  the  left  optic  nerve  to  the  right,  and 
from  the  left  eyeball  to  the  right  one,  and  vice  versa. 
Filaments  also  pass  from  one  optic  tubercle,  that  is,  from 
the  origin  of  one  optic  nerve  to  the  other.^  The  eyes,  as 
Dalton  remarks,  "  are  not  so  much  two  distinct  organs,  as 
one  double  one."  Besides  the  direct  impressions  (color, 
size,  etc.)  carried  to  the  brain  by  the  optic  nerves,  impres- 
sions which  result  in  reflex  action  are  brought  back  to  the 
eye  from  the  optic  tubercles.  A  stimulus  of  light,  for 
example,  is  conveyed  to  the  optic  tubercles,  and  is  reflected 
outward  to  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  iris,  causing  con- 
traction or  dilatation,  as  the  case  may  be. 

1  The  eyesight  may  be  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  by  proper  cul- 
tivation. It  is  related  of  Professor  Agassiz  that  he  once  selected  as  an  assist- 
ant the  candidate  who  could  best  see  and  describe  what  was  to  be  seen  from  an 
oi)en  window.  One  person  saw  merely  a  board  fence  and  a  brick  pavement, 
another  added  a  stream  of  soapy  water,  while  a  third  detected  the  color  of  the 
paint  on  the  fence,  noted  a  green  mold  or  fungus  on  the  bricks,  and  evidence 
of  bluing  in  the  water,  and  other  details.  Houdin,  the  celebrated  prestidigita- 
teur,  in  his  autobiography,  attributes  his  succees  mainly  to  the  quickness  of 
his  perception,  which  he  acquired  by  walking  repeatedly  and  rapidly  by  a  shop 
window  full  of  miscellaneous  articles,  endeavoring  thus  to  recognize  as  many 
objects  as  he  could  at  a  glance. 

In  many  respects  the  human  eye  resembles  the  photographic  camera,  with 
its  darkened  chamber,  reflecting  surfaces,  adjusting  screws,  sensitive  jilates,  etc., 
and  like  it,  in  use  by  an  experienced  and  pains-taking  owner,  much  more  accu- 
rate pictures  will  be  reproduced  than  if  the  owners  are  reckless  or  uneducated. 

2  The  optic  tubercles  are  cerebral  ganglia  on  the  under  surface  of  the  brain, 
near  its  front  portion,  in  which  the  optic  nerves  originate. 


SIGHT.  283 

384.  Objects  are  ordinarily  perceived  by  the  simulta- 
neous use  of  both  eyes,  i.e.^  by  binocular  vision.  Two 
images  of  each  object  are  formed  at  the  same  time,  one 
upon  each  retina,  though  so  combined  as  to  produce  the 
impression  of  but  one  object  upon  the  brain.^  With 
binocular  vision  we  appreciate,  with  greater  accuracy,  the 
solidity  and  distance  of  objects  ;2  hence,  with  one  eye 
closed,  the  difficulty  of  threading  a  needle,  or  touching 
any  object  quickly,  will  be  much  increased,  (a.) 

385.  Owing  to  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  eyes, 
defects  in  vision  are  quite  common.  In  cases  of  injury 
to,  or  disease  of  one  eye,  the  peculiar  decussation  of  the 
fibres  of  the  optic  nerves  may  give  rise  to  "sympathetic" 
inflammation,  or  disease  of  the  other  eye.^ 

The  ophthalmoscope,  an  optical  instrument  which,  used 
in  a  dark  room,  reflects  by  means  of  a  bright  light  the  inner 
coats  and  contents  of  the  eye,  was  invented  by  Helmholtz 
in  1851.  It  enables  the  physician  to  detect  optical  defects 
which  the  patient  may  not  have  been  aware  of.  Before  the 
use  of  the  ophthalmoscope  many  diseased  or  disordered  con- 
ditions of  the  eye  were  not  accurately  recognized.  It  is 
now  known,  for  example,  that  defective  circulation  in  the 
retinal  blood-vessels  may  disturb  the  vision;  and  that 
changes  in  the  form,  consistency,  or  relation  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  eye  may  induce  grave  optical  defects. 

1  The  best  binocular  vision  results  when  the  images  are  both  upon  the  yellow 
spots.  But  if  this  be  not  the  case,  if,  for  example,  one  eye  be  pressed  a  little 
to  one  side  by  the  finger,  and  an  object  is  then  looked  at  with  both  eyes,  the 
object  will  seem  double,  the  images  falling  upon  different  points  in  the  two  eyes. 

2  Looking  at  a  solid  object  with  both  eyes,  the  two  images  formed  upon  the 
retina  are  not  exactly  alike,  for  one  eye  sees  it  from  one  side,  the  other  from 
another  side.  The  result  is  a  "  stereoscopic  effect."  Double  pictures,  so  drawn 
that  they  represent  the  objects  as  seen  by  the  two  eyes,  will,  when  shown  by 
the  stereoscope,  appear  solid. 

3  As  to  the  removal  of  foreign  bodies,  and  the  treatment  of  injuries  of  the 
eye,  see  chapter  on  emergencies. 


284  SIGHT. 

386.  Color-blindness  is  the  inability  to  distinguish 
certain  colors.  Helmholtz  and  others  have  considered 
red,  green,  and  violet  as  base  colors,  i.e.,  colors,  by  the 
mingling  of  which  in  proper  proportions,  white  (a  combi- 
nation of  all  colors)  and  the  various  colors  of  the  solar 
spectrum  may  be  produced.  It  is  believed  that  there  are 
special  retinal  elements  for  the  perception  of  each  of  these 
base  colors,  and  that  the  color-blind  are  deficient  in  one 
set  of  these  elements,  most  commonly  the  red.^  It  is 
especially  important  that  railroad  engineers  and  seamen 
should  not  be  color-blind.  Vessels  carry  at  night  upon 
their  right  hand  or  "starboard"  side  a  green  light,  and 
upon  the  left  hand  or  "port"  side  a  red  light.  A  red 
light  also  is  the  danger  signal  upon  railroads.  Color-blind 
engineers  may  therefore  not  distinguish  danger  signals,  or 
pilots  know  how  to  pass  an  approaching  vessel,  thereby 
causing  collision  and  loss  of  life.  Especially  are  such 
accidents  to  be  expected  if  the  atmosphere  is  so  humid 
that  these  men  cannot  distinguish  the  difference  in  the 
luminosity  as  well  as  in  the  color  of  signals,  (a.) 

387.  An  eye  perfectly  formed,  i.e.,  one  in  which  the 
rays  of  light  are  made  to  converge  to  a  focus  directly  upon 
the  retina,  is  called  an   emmetropic^  eye.     If  the  axis  of 

1  Sometimes  color-blindness  is  called  Daltonism,  from  Dalton,  the  English 
chemist,  who  first  carefully  described  it,  and  was  himself  subject  to  it.  It  is 
related  that  his  friends  were  much  concerned  when  he  was  to  be  presented  at 
court,  for  fear  that,  being  a  Quaker,  he  would  not  wear  the  scarlet  robe  which 
his  position  required  him  to  wear;  but  to  him  it  seemed  of  a  gray  color. 

2  From  the  Greek  word  emmetros,  i.e.  regular.  Accuracy  of  vision  may 
"  be  ascertained  by  employing  the  ordinary  cards  used  by  opthalmic  surgeons, 
upon  which  are  printed  letters  (in  Roman)  of  differing  sizes.  Each  line  of 
letters  has  at  the  end  a  number,  which  denotes  the  distance  in  feet  at  which  a 
person  should  stand  and  see  the  letters  clearly.  K  he  can  do  this,  he  possesses 
normal  acuteness  of  vision.  According  to  the  usual  system  employed  in  eye 
infirmaries,  if  a  certain  line  is  to  be  read  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  feet,  and  the 
pupil  can  do  so,  he  is  marked  xf ;  if  he  must  go  closer,  and  can  only  distinguish 
at  eleven  feet,  he  is  marked  -\l,  the  denominator  of  the  fraction  representing 
the  normal  distance,  and  the  numerator  the  actual  distance,  (a.) 


SIGHT. 


285 


the  eyeball  is  too  long  or  too  short,  the  focus  will  not  fall 
upon  the  retina,  but  in  front  of  or  behind  it.  There  is 
then  said  to  be  an  "  error  in  refraction."  In  myo'pia^  or 
short-sight,  parallel  rays  of  light  entering  the  eye  are 
focussed  in  front  of  the  retina,  the  axis  of  the  eye  being 
too  long.  Objects  are  not  plainly  seen  until  they  are 
brought  near  enough  for  their  images  to  be  focussed  upon 
the  retina.  This  condition  is  often  hereditary,  but  is  also 
induced  by  strain,  for  example,  by  reading  very  small  print 
in  a  poor  light,  and  by  long,  uninterrupted  use  of  the  eyes 
in  close  work.  For  its  relief,  properly  fitted  concave 
glasses  are  needed,  (a.) 


Fig.  83. 


A,  parallel  rays  of  light;  E,  emmetropic  or  normal  eye,  rays  focussing  at  proper 
point;  H,  long-sighted  eye;   M,  short-sighted  eye. 

388.  In  hypermetropia^  or  long  sight,  the  axis  of  the 
eyeball  is  too  short,  and  the  focus  falls  heyond  the  retina. 
This  condition  is  to  be  remedied  by  convex  glasses,  which 
will  converge  the  rays  of  light  upon  the  retina.  Print, 
after  too  long  reading,  becomes  blurred  and  misty.  The 
performance  of  accommodation  is  painful,  so  sensitive 
have  the  parts  become,  even  when  there  is  no  attempt  to 
use  the  eyes,  and  in  children  there  is  always  more  or  less 
danger  of  squint  resulting  from  the  effort  to  see  things 
near  by. 


1  So  called  from  Greek  words  which  mean  to  close  the  eyes,  since  short- 
sighted persons  often  partially  close  the  lids  in  order  to  see  distinctly. 


286 


SIGHT. 


389.  Presbyopia^  or  old  sight,  is  a  failure  of  accommo- 
dation, or  a  loss  of  power  for  adjusting  the  focus  of  the 
eye  for  near  objects,  and  is  especially  due  to  the  fact  that 
with  increasing  age  the  lens  becomes  stiffer,  and  incapable 
of  being  bent  into  the  coijvexity  necessary  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  focus  for  near  objects.^  To  remedy  this 
defect  convex  lenses  are  required. 

390.  Another  optical  defect  is 
astigmatism^  or  the  inability  of  the 
eye  to  focus  lines  perpendicular 
to  each  other  at  the  same  time. 
(Fig.  84.)  This  condition  depends 
upon  a  difference  in  the  curvature 
of  the  different  meridians  of  the 
cornea  or  lens.  Persons  so  affected 
may  readily  distinguish  horizontal 
or  perpendicular  lines  of  type,  but 
not  both  sets  equally  well  at  the 
same  time. 


Fig.  84. 


391.  Proper  care  of  the  eyes  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. Healthy  and  well-formed  eyes,  if  properly  used,  do 
their  work  without  the  consciousness  of  their  owners,  so 
that  pain,  or  discomfort  in  them,  or  even  slight  defects  in 
vision,  are  warnings  of  disorder  if  not  of  disease.  But 
persons  whose  general  health  is  unusually  good  are  liable 
to  be  over  confident,  and  so  fail  to  take  notice  of  these 
warnings  in  time.  Young  children  are  too  frequently 
encouraged  in  persistent  "  near  work,"  such  as  prolonged 
drawing,   studying,   reading,  and  sewing.     Such  children 

1  Sometimes  old  people  are  delighted  at  the  return  of  what  is  called  "  sec- 
ond sight,"  by  which  they  may  be  enabled  to  read  without  the  aid  of  their 
accustomed  glasses.  In  fact,  they  have  become  short-sighted  owing  to  a  change 
in  the  shape  of  the  lens,  and  can  see  clearly  objects  near  at  hand,  while  objects 
far  off  are  more  indistinct  than  before. 


SIGHT.  287 

may  become  prodigies,  but  the  soundness  of  their  eyes  is 
frequently  sacrificed,  (a.)  Most  of  the  eye  troubles  of 
infants  are  the  result  of  the  careless  exposure  of  their  sensi- 
tive eyes  to  glaring  light,  or  to  impure  air,  in  the  "living" 
rooms  where  the  washing  of  soiled  clothing  is  carried  on, 
or  of  the  application  of  poultices  and  other  materials  to 
the  eye,  etc.  In  adult  life  certain  occupations  tend  to 
weaken  the  eyes,  but  even  in  such  instances  much  can 
be  done  to  save  them.  The  following  directions  for  this 
purpose  are  those  deemed  most  important :  — 

1.  For  all  kinds  of  work  have  an  abundance  of  clear 
and  steady  lights  especially  when  engaged  in  writing,  read- 
ing, embroidering,  painting,  or  other  work  which  "tries 
the  eyes."  Fine  work,  and  that  upon  dark  surfaces,  should 
be  performed  by  daylight.  Using  the  eyes  closely  during 
twilight  is  injurious. 

2.  Avoid  a  glaring  light,  and  see  to  it  that  the  sun  does 
not  shine  directly  upon  j^our  work.  Interpose  ground 
glass,  or  light  blue,  or  gray  tinted  glass,  or  paper.  The 
reflection  into  the  eyes  of  sunlight  from  the  surface  of 
mirrors  is  not  to  be  tolerated. 

3.  Let  the  light  reach  your  work  preferably  from  the 
left  side  and  from  ahove^  not  from  in  front.^ 

4.  When  using  artificial  light  (^.e.,  that  from  a  lamp, 
gas,  etc.),  it  is  beneficial  to  shade  the  eyes  from  any  heat 
and  glare.  If  gas  is  used,  the  Argand  burner,  with  its 
shade  and  chimney,  is  advisable.  If  a  lamp,  use  only  the 
best  oil  and  a  good  lamp,  particularly  the  "  German 
students'  lamp."  "A  slight  tinge  of  blue  or  gray,  in  the 
shade  or  chimney,  modifies  the  light  pleasantly  by  absorb- 
ing the  excess  of  yellow  rays."  ^     The  heat  and  glare  of 

1  If  from  the  right  or  behind,  shadows  are  cast  upon  the  work. 

"  Coal  oil  is  so  cheap  now-a-days  that  there  is  no  need  for  "tallow  dips," 
or  the  "slush  lights  "  of  the  miners,  and  light  from  it  is  much  better  for  the 
eyes.  The  electric  light  (adapted  to  use  in  the  house)  will,  it  is  believed,  prove 
useful  for  near  work. 


288  SIGHT. 

necessarily  bright  illuminating  rays  are  sometimes  lessened 
by  the  interposition  of  globes  filled  with  water. 

5.  When  reading,  it  is  important  that  the  type  should 
be  clear,^  of  good  size,  and  printed  in  dark,  not  pale,  ink ; 
that  the  paper  printed  upon  should  have  a  yellowish  tinge, 
or  not  be  absolutely  white.^  For  sensitive  eyes  faint  blue 
ink  may  be  preferable. 

6.  Do  not  read  or  write  when  lying  down^  riding  in  the 
cars  or  a  carriage^  or  when  walking^  or  when  overcome  with 
jsleep^  for  under  all  these  conditions  the  accommodative 
apparatus  of  the  eyes  is  strained.  Especially  is  this  true 
if  we  read  in  moving  vehicles,  for  the  irregular  muscular 
strain  resulting  is  exhausting  to  most  eyes.  Reading 
during  convalescence  from  any  debilitating  sickness  is 
attended  by  an  improper  strain  of  the  weakened  eye 
muscles. 

7.  Do  not  bend  over  your  work  for  any  length  of  time ; 
such  a  constrained  position  tires  the  muscles  of  the  eye  as 
well  as  those  of  the  neck  and  trunk. 

8.  Prolonged  and  uninterrupted  tension  of  the  eyes  over 
any  kind  of  work  is  injurious,  but  especially  is  this  true 
of  fine  work.  Look  up  and  away  from  the  work  frequently, 
directing  the  sight  towards  varied  and   distant  objects.^ 

1  What  is  known  as  "heavy-faced  "  type  should  be  used,  not  the  "  light- 
faced." 

2  Most  oculists  believe  that  the  best  paper  is  that  which  is  known  to  the 
trade  as  "natural,"  i.e.,  which  has  no  dye  in  it,  and  which  has  been  bleached 
but  little,  and  is  not  glazed. 

3  Writing  tables  and  desks  covered  with  blue  or  green  cloth,  paper,  or 
leather,  serve  to  rest  the  eyes.  Kooms  papered  and  painted  in  the  same  colors 
have  the  same  effect.  Smoked  or  light  blue  eye-glasses  may  be  worn  if  the 
eyes  are  exposed  to  glaring  light,  such  as  the  reflection  from  snow  or  sand.  It 
is  a  disadvantage  of  city  life  that  the  eyes  are  occupied  for  the  most  part  with 
close  objects.  Excursions  into  the  country  are  valuable  partly  for  the  rest  af- 
forded the  eyes.  It  is  related  of  a  city  boy,  that,  when  taken  from  the  ten- 
ement in  which  he  lived  to  the  country,  he  went  into  raptures,  exclaiming, 
"  that  he  never  knew  there  was  so  much  sky." 


SIGHT.  289 

If  the  eyes  pain,  or  are  fatigued,  or  the  images  produced 
are  blurred,  rest  them. 

9.  In  reading,  a  book  should  not  be  held  nearer  to  the 
eyes  than  is  necessary  to  see  the  print  distinctly.  Print 
like  that  in  the  text  of  this  book  should  not  be  read  con- 
tinuously nearer  than  about  eighteen  inches.  If  you  are 
obliged  to  hold  it  nearer  than  fifteen  inches,  the  probability 
is  that  you  are  near-sighted ;  if  two  feet  away,  far-sighted. 

10.  If  the  eyes  ache  or  are  weak,  bathe  them  frequently 
in  clear  cool  water,  but  do  not  use  eye-washes,  soap,  poul- 
tices, or  other  application  unless  prescribed  by  a  physician. 
The  eye  is  too  precious  an  organ  to  be  trifled  with. 

11.  "Have  all  diseases  of  the  eye  treated  early  and  skil- 
fully, and  remember  that  the  well  eye  sympathizes  with 
the  diseased  one,  and  you  may  lose  both  unless  early  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  matter.  Diseases  of  the  e3^es  in  which 
a  large  amount  of  matter  forms  are  dangerous,  and  pa- 
tients so  affected  should  be  careful  to  get  no  matter  from 
the  diseased  eye  into  the  well  one,  and  they  should  have  a 
separate  basin  and  towels  for  washing  purposes." 

12.  If  necessary  to  wear  glasses  or  spectacles,  do  it,  the 
eyesight  being  of  more  importance  than  personal  appear- 
ance. 

13.  Beware  of  quack  eye  doctors,  and  travelling  or  street 
vendors  of  spectacles ;  neither  have  medical  education  or 
experience.  Even  plain  colored  glasses  or  goggles,  used 
without  proper  advice,  are  likely  to  be  injurious. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  the  parts  belonging  to  the  eye,  or  auxiliary  to  its  use  ? 

2.  Describe  how  the  eyes  are  protected  from  injury,  —  by  situation ; 

the  eyebrows  ;  the  eyelids ;  and  the  eyelashes. 

3.  What  is  the  conjunctiva  and  its  function  ? 

4.  "Where,  and  of  what  use,  are  the  tarsal  cartilages  ?  the  Meibomian 

glands  ? 


290  SIGHT. 

5.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  eyelids  ? 

6.  By  what  are  tears  secreted,  and  how  are  they  poured  into  and  dis- 

tributed over  the  eye,  and  discharged  from  it  ? 

7.  Of  what  use  are  the  tears,  and  how  is  their  secretion  increased  ? 

8.  Describe  the  eyeballs. 

9.  Through  which  part  of  them  does  light  enter,  and  through  what 

media  ? 

10.  How  many  and  what  coats  has  the  other  or  opaque  part? 

11.  Describe  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  how  it  is  moved. 

12.  What  gains  admission  to  the  eye  through  the  sclerotic  coat,  and 

where  ? 

13.  Locate,  describe,  and  give  the  use  of  the  choroid. 

14.  Of  the  iris  and  pupil. 

15.  To  what  is  the  color  of  the  eye  due? 

16.  Where  is  the  ciliary  muscle? 

17.  Locate,  describe,  and  give  the  functions  of  the  retina. 

18.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  "  blind  spot " ;  by  the  "  yellow  spot." 

19.  Explain  why  the  spokes  of  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel  seem  to  run 

together,  and  why  a  rapidly  revolving  torch  gives  a  circle  of 
light. 

20.  How  may  the  retina  of  the  eye  become  tired  and  cease  to  act  ? 

and  how  may  its  action  be  restored  ? 

21.  Locate,  describe,  and  give  the  use  of  the  vitreous  humor;  of  the 

crystalline  lens. 

22.  In  what  position  are  the  images  of  objects  thrown  upon  the  retina? 

Why  do  we  see  them  in  their  proper  position  ? 

23.  What  is  the  ultimate  organ  of  perception,  and  to  what  are  unusual 

visions  due? 

24.  Where  and  what  is  the  aqueous  humor  ? 

25.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  "  circle  "  or  "  field  of  vision  "  ? 

26.  What  by  the  "power  of  accommodation,"  and  to  what  is  it  due? 

27.  What  illustrations  can  you  give  of  the  effect  of  training  the  j^ower 

of  accommodation  ? 

28.  What  is  the  object  of  the  optic  nerves. 

29.  At  what  point  does  a  decussation  of  the  optic  nerves  take  place  ? 

30.  How  is  the  iris  stimulated  to  contract  and  dilate  ? 

31.  What  is  meant  by  binocular  vision,  and  what  is  its  use? 

32.  What  is  meant  by  an  emmetropic  eye  ? 

33.  What  is  myopia,  and  to  what  is  it  due  ? 

34.  What  bad  habits  produce  it,  and  by  what  sort  of  glasses  must  it 

be  relieved  ? 


SIGHT. 


291 


35.  What  is  hypermetropia,  and  to  what  is  it  clue? 

36.  What  is  presbyopia,  and  to  what  is  it  due  ? 

37.  How  are  hypermetropia  and  presbyopia  remedied  ? 

38.  What  is  astigmatism,  and  to  what  is  it  due  ? 

39.  What  is  color-blindness  and  its  dangers  ? 

40.  What  cautions  must  be  observed  in  reference  to  the  care  of  the 

eyes? 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CHAPTER. 


I.  Importance. 


SIGHT. 


Orbit. 
Eyebrows. 

Eyelids  and  conjunctiva. 
Eyelashes  or  ciliae. 
Meibomian  glands  and  ducts, 
f  Cornea. 


II.  Organs  (or,  the  eyes  and  ^ 
their  appendages) 


TIL  Normal 

IV.  Defects 
V.  Care  of. 


Eyeball 


Sclerotic  coat. 
Choroid. 
Iris. 
Pupil. 

Ciliary  body. 
Retina. 

Vitreous  humor. 
Aqueous  humor. 
^  Crystalline  lens. 


^  Optic  nerves. 

Binocular  vision. 

Power  of  accommodation. 

Blurring,  or  weak  sight. 
Myopia,  or  short  sight. 
Hypermetropia,  or  long  sight. 
Presbyopia,  or  old  sight. 
Astigmatism. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

HEARING. 

392.  Hearing  is  effected  by  means  of  impressions  made 
by  the  vibration  of  elastic  bodies,  ordinarily  of  the  atmos- 
phere, upon  the  organs  of  hearing.^  A  shock  from  a 
sounding  body,  communicated  to  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere, passes  in  waves  towards  the  ear,  moving  like  the 
ripples  upon  water  after  a  pebble  has  been  thrown  into  it. 
Sound  moves  at  the  rate  of  1090  feet  per  second  in  air  at 
the  freezing  point ;  the  velocity  increasing  2  feet  per  sec- 
ond for  every  increase  of  2°  C.  in  the  temperature. 

Upon  the  variations  in  the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  of 
sonorous  bodies  depends  the  pitch  of  the  sounds  they 
produce.  Every  sound  is  composed  of  a  number  of  partial 
tones,  as  they  are  called,  just  as  light  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  colors.  The  number  and  comparative  strength 
of  these  partial  tones  cause  the  difference  in  sounds.^ 
By  this  difference  we  distinguish  one  voice  from  another. 
The  notes  on  the  piano  and  organ  are  said  to  vary  from 
33  to  4224  vibrations  in  a  second.  The  piccolo,  a  kind 
of  flute,  emits  a  shrill  note  of  4752  vibrations  in  a  second. 
These  are  the  ordinary  notes  used  in  music,  but  the  human 
ear  can  distinguish  a  note  with  as  few  vibrations  as  20, 
and  as  many  as  38,000,  in  a  second.     The  higher  notes, 

1  The  earth,  wood,  and  many  other  solid  substances  transmit  sound  readily. 
Even  so  slight  a  sound  as  the  scratching  with  a  pin  on  the  end  of  a  long  log 
may  be  heard  at  the  other  end.  An  approaching  train  may  be  discovered  by 
the  sound  transmitted  for  a  long  distance  upon  the  iron  rails. 

2  The  first  partial  tone  is  known  as  the  fundamental  tone,  the  others  are 
"  over-tones  "  or  harmonics. 


HEARING.  293 

however,  are  more  or  less  painful  to  the  ear,  so  powerful 
are  the  vibrations  in  the  air  of  the  auditory  canal.^ 

393.  The  ear  is  the  organ  of  hearing.  It  has  a  very- 
complex  and  delicate  structure,  which  is  for  the  most  part 
located  in  the  petrous  or  stony  portion  of  the  temporal 
bone  in  order  to  be  well  protected  from  injury.  For  con- 
venience of  study  the  ear  is  considered  in  three  portions : 
the  external^  middle^  and  internal  ear.  The  first  two  ana- 
tomical divisions  correspond  to  the  conducting  apparatus, 
and  the  last  to  the  perceptive. 

394.  The  external  ear  includes  the  auricle.,  or  the  ear  of 
common  language,  and  the  auditory  canal.,  which  leads  to 
the  memhrana  tympani  or  drum-head.  The  auricle  is  a 
shell  of  cartilage  covered  with  skin,  which  closely  fits  its 
every  groove,  ridge,  and  depression.  It  flares  out  some- 
thing like  a  funnel,  the  better  to  catch  vibrations  of  sound. 
In  man  it  is  rarely  movable,  the  muscles  for  that  purpose 
not  being  large  or  well  developed.^  It  is  well  supplied  with 
blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  lymphatics,  and  has  at  its  lowest 
part  a  cushion  of  fat  and  fibrous  tissue,  being  the  part 
to  which  earrings  are  fastened.^  The  auricle  gradually 
blends  with  the  walls  of  the  auditory  canal.  This  canal  is 
about  one  and  one-fourth  inches  long,  averages  one-fourth 
inch  in  diameter,  and  has  a  downward,  inward,  and  some- 
what forward  direction.  The  outer  one-third  is  cartilage ; 
the  inner  two-thirds,  bone.  Through  this  canal  the  drum- 
head which  closes  its  lower  end  may  be  seen  by  means  of 

1  Hearinf/  and  how  to  keep  it.  American  Health  Primer.  Chas.  H. 
Burnett,  M.D. 

2  In  animals  the  auricle  in  general  is  very  movable,  enabling  them  to  per- 
ceive very  faint  sounds  by  turning  the  ear  towards  them.  Even  some  human 
beings  possess  considerable  power  in  this  respect. 

3  Sometimes  the  cartilage  dips  down  into  the  lobule  and  is  liable  to  injury 
when  the  ear  is  pierced.    Serious  inflammation  may  thus  be  produced. 


294 


HEAKING. 


a  reflecting  mirror  and  an  instrument  called  the  ear  specun 
lum.  The  walls  of  this  canal  are  lined  by  skin  which  is 
continuous  with  that  of  the  auricle,  and  also  with  that 
over  the  drum-head,  where  the  skin  is  very  fine.  The 
external  ear  has  in  the  auditory  canal  an  abundance  of 
both  sweat  and  sebaceous  glands,  and  many  hairs,  which 


Fig.  85. 
The  organs  of  hearing.  —  1,  auricle;  2,  opening  of  car,  showing  orifices  of  sebaceous 
glands;  3,  external  auditory  canal;  4,  semi-circular  canals;  .'>,  auditory  nerve, 
with  facial  nerve  ;  6,  membrana  tympani,  with  the  elastic  fibrous  membrane 
which  forms  its  border;  7,  tympanic  cavity ;  8,  tensor  muscle  of  the  tympanum, 
the  tendon  being  attached  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  handle  of  the  malleus; 
9,  upper  portion  of  Eustachian  tube. 

are  coarse  and  stiff;  also  numerous  ceruminous  or  wax- 
producing  glands,^  which  secrete  the  wax  of  the  ear,  a 
sticky  and  bitter  substance  which  tends  to  prevent  the 
inroads  of  insects  and  the  growth  of  fungi. 

395.    The  drum-head  or   membrana  tympani  (wrongly 
called  the  drum'),  at  the  bottom  of  the  auditory  canal,  is 


They  are  classified  as  modified  sweat  glands. 


HEARING.  295 

the  partition  between  the  external  ear  and  the  middle  ear 
or  drum  cavity.  It  is  almost  circular,  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  ^fo-  of  ^i^  inch  thick,  and  con- 
sists of  three  layers ;  an  outer  one  of  skin,  a  middle  one  of 
fibrous  tissue  (to  which  the  other  layers  are  attached), 
and  an  inner  one  of  mucous  membrane,  continuous  with 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  drum  cavity,  and  with  that 
of  the  Eustachian  tube  and  the  pharynx.  Near  the  central 
line  of  the  drum-head,  and  extending  from  above  down- 
ward and  backward,  as  seen  through  the  external  opening 
of  the  ear,  is  an  opaque,  Avhite  ridge,  due  to  the  attachment 
of  the  so-called  handle  of  the  hammer,  one  of  the  small 
bones  of  the  ear,  to  the  middle  layer  of  the  drum-head. 
So  attached,  the  hammer  readily  vibrates  inwards  and  out- 
wards with  the  vibrations  of  the  drum-head.  The  general 
surface  of  the  drum-head  is  smooth  and  of  a  pearly  lustre. 

396.  The  middle  ear^  tympanum,  or  drum  proper,  is 
an  air  cavity,^  about  one-half  inch  in  height  and  width, 
and  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep,  and  is  lined  with 
mucous  membrane,  a  continuation  from  that  of  the  throat, 
through  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  tube  connects  the 
drum  cavity  with  the  pharynx.  Connected  also  with  this 
cavity  posteriorly,  and  lined  with  mucous  membrane,  are 
the  "mastoid  cells"  or  little  air  cavities  in  the  mastoid 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,^ — the  prominence  immedi- 
ately behind  the  auricle.  Through  these  cells,  or  through 
the  roof  of  the  drum  cavity,  which  is  very  thin,  and  upon 
which  the  brain  rests,  an  inflammation  of  the  middle  ear 
may  extend  to  the  brain. 

1  This  cavity  or  drum  in  its  construction  somewhat  resembles  an  ordinary- 
snare  or  military  drum,  which  is  a  reservoir  of  air,  with  two  drum-heads  capa- 
ble of  vibration.  In  an  ordinary  drum  air  is  admitted  to  the  inside  (drum 
cavity)  by  holes  in  the  sides  of  the  drum.  Into  the  drum  of  the  ear  the  air  is 
admitted  through  the  Eustachian  tube. 

-2  Supposed  to  be  concerned  iu  the  resonance  of  the  voice. 


296  HEARING. 

The  most  important  contents  of  the  drum  cavity  are 
the  three  ossicles  or  little  bones  of  the  ear ;  viz.,  the 
malleus  or  hammer,  the  incus  or  anvil,  and  the  stapes  or 
stirrup,  so  named  from  a  resemblance  to  these  objects. 
^Though  weighing  but  a  few  grains,  these  bonelets  have 
muscles,  cartilages,  and  blood-vessels,  and  are  so  joined 
together  that  they  form  a  bridge  or  "  chain  of  bones " 
reaching  across  the  drum  cavity,  from  the  drum-head  to 
the  internal  ear,  and  by  vibratory  motion  convey  sounds 
to  the  fluid  of  the  internal  ear^  in  which  float  filaments  of 
the  auditory  nerve.  The  bone  nearest  the  drum-head,  and 
the  largest  of  the  three,  is  the  hammer,  which  is  held  in 
position  by  ligaments  attached  to  the  roof  and  outer  wall 
of  the  drum  cavity.  Its  handle  is,  as  we  have  seen,  fast- 
ened securely  to  the  middle  layer  of  the  drum-head,  while 
its  head  is  articulated  with  the  next  bone,  the  anvil,  which 
is  also  held  in  position  by  two  ligaments,  one  attached  to 
the  upper  and  posterior  wall  of  the  drum  cavity,  and  the 
other  to  the  drum-head.  If  the  handle  of  the  hammer  is 
pulled  outwards,  this  joint  between  the  hammer  and  anvil 
"unlocks,"  releasing  the  anvil,  but  if  it  is  pushed  in- 
wards, the  anvil  is  carried  with  it.  The  anvil  is  joined  to 
the  stirrup  or  stapes,  its  long  process  or  leg  fitting  into  a 
depression  in  the  head  of  the  stirrup.  The  foot-rest  of 
the  stirrup  is  oval,  and  accurately  fits  into  the  oval  window 
of  the  labyrinth,  as  the  cavity  of  the  internal  ear  is 
called. 

397.  The  Eustachian  tube  is  a  little  more  than  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  and  its  direction  from  the  mouth  to  the  ear 
is  upward,  outward,  and  backward.  Two-thirds  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  tube  is  cartilaginous,  while  its  upper 
wall  is  membraneous.  The  remainder  of  the  tube  is  bone. 
In  the  act  of  swallowing,  the  anterior  wall  is  pulled  apart 
from  the    posterior  by  muscle  fibres,  offshoots  from  the 


HEARING.  297 

muscles  of  the  palate,  and  air  enters  the  Eustachian  tube.^ 
Attached  to  the  drum-head  is  a  delicate  prolongation  of 
one  of  these  offshoots,  known  as  the  tensor  tympanic  or 
stretcher  of  the  drum.  This  tube  supplies  air  to  the 
drum  cavity,  is  an  escape  tube  for  its  secretions,  and  is  a 
passage  for  a  counter  equalizing  current  of  air,  when  the 
drum-head  is  driven  suddenly  in  by  the  concussion  of  a 
blow  or  explosion  .2  Gunners,  when  a  heavy  cannon  is 
about  to  be  fired,  open  their  mouths  so  that  the  force  of 
the  concussion  may  be  less  felt,  and  they  sometimes  stand 
upon  tiptoe  for  a  similar  reason.^  Closure  of  the  Eusta- 
chian tube  is  liable  to  cause  deafness  by  preventing  free 
entrance  and  exit  of  air,  and  by  the  consequent  increased 
pressure  upon  the  drum-head. 

398.  The  internal  ear  comprises  the  labyrinth  and  por- 
tions of  the  auditory  nerve  connected  with  it.  The  laby- 
rinth is  a  hollow  bony  cavity.  Its  central  portion,  called 
the  vestibule^  is  a  sort  of  ante-room,  the  entrance  to  which, 
from  the  middle  ear  (i.e.  the  oval  opening  or  window),  is 
closed  by  the  foot-rest  of  the  stirrup  bone.  Its  upper  and 
forward  portion,  the  cochlea  or  snail  shelly  is  a  tube  coiled 
in  a  pyramidal  way.  Its  lower  and  posterior  portion 
constitutes  the  semicircular  canals^  three  in  number. 
The  inside  of  the  cochlea  is  divided  into  two  passages 
or   stairways,  one    above    the    other,  and   connecting   at 

1  Repeated  acts  of  swallowing  are  said  to  prevent  much  of  the  discomfort 
and  pain  in  the  ears  consequent  upon  going  down  in  diving  bells,  and  ascend- 
ing mountains. 

2  "  At  certain  points  on  the  Rhine,  it  is,  or  was,  the  custom  of  the  captain 
of  the  steamboat  to  fire  a  small  cannon  to  exhibit  the  echo.  When  this  has 
been  done  without  due  warning,  it  has  proved  more  than  once  a  cause  of  lasting 
deafness." 

3  If,  while  a  bather's  head  is  immersed,  two  stones  or  shells  be  clashed 
together  under  the  water,  the  sounds  perceived  by  him  will  be  almost  deafen- 
ing, and  may  permanently  impair  his  liearing.  Children  should  be  extremely 
careful  not  to  play  this  dangerous  trick  upon  each  other. 


298 


UKAIMNG. 


the  upper  portion  of  the  cochlea.  The  lower  part  of 
the  upper  one  opens  into  the  vestibule  near  the  oval 
opening  or  window,  while  the  round  window  which  is 
closed  by  a  membrane,  is  near  the  corresponding  part  of 
the  lower  stairway.  When  the  liquid  in  the  labyrinth  is 
compressed  by  the  pressure  inwards  of  the  stirrup,  it  finds 
a  point  of  relief  at  the  round  window,  by  the  slight  yield- 
ing of  its  membrane  which  occurs.     The  fluid  which  fills 


Fig.  86.    (From  photograph  by  Rudinger.) 

A.  Right  temporal  bone,  auricle  and  external  canal  removed.  —  MT,  membrana 
tyrapani,  or  drum-head;   M,  handle  of  malleus  showing  through. 

B.  Right  temporal  bone,  inner  side,  petrous  portion  removed. —MT,  the  drum- 
head;  OS,  chain  of  bones  in  position. 

C.  The  bones  of  the  ear.  —  1,  the  malleus;  2,  the  incus;  3,  the  stapes. 

D.  The  relation  of  the  bones  of  the  ear  to  the  bony  portions  of  the  internal  ear.— 
1,  the  ossicles,  foot-rest  of  stapes,  attached  to' oval  window;  2,  the  cochlea; 
3,  the  semi-circular  canals;  4,  the  upper  end  of  Eustachian  tube.  The  round 
window  is  not  seen  in  the  cut. 

the  labyrinth  is  a  part  of  the  natural  water  of  the  brain 
and  skull  cavity.  In  this  fluid  float  membraneous  casts  of 
the  labyrinth,  called  the  memhrmieous  labyrinth.  Distrib- 
uted in  and  upon  them  are  the  delicate  filaments  of  the 
auditory  nerve.  Of  this  nerve  there  are  two  main 
branches,  —  the  cochlear  branch  supplying  the  cochlea,  and 
the  vestibular  branch  supplying  the  remaining  portion  of 


HEARING.  299 

the  membraneous  labyrinth.  The  filaments  of  the  coch- 
lear nerve  are  distributed  in  a  very  complex  manner  to 
the  shelves  of  the  cochlea,  and  end  upon  thousands  of 
little  hair-like  cells,  harp  strings  as  it  were,  which  are  held 
in  place  upon  the  so-called  organs  or  arches  of  Corti.^ 
The  vibration  of  these  hair-like  cells  is  communicated  to 
their  connecting  nerve  filaments,  and  thus  to  the  auditory 
nerve  and  brain.  It  is  stated  by  physiologists  that  we 
hear  noises  with  the  vestibule  nerves,  and  music  with  the 
cochlear  ones. 

399.  It  is  supposed  that  beside  their  connection  with 
hearing,  the  semicircular  canals  have  something  to  do 
with  the  coordination  of  muscular  movements.  Coordinate 
muscular  movements  appear  to  depend  for  their  due  per- 
formance upon  a  correct  notion  of  our  equilibrium  or 
proper  carriage  of  the  body.  Experiments  upon  birds  and 
other  animals  sliow  that  when  these  canals  are  injured 
uncontrollable  motions  of  the  head  ensue,  followed  by  reel- 
ings and  falls,  and  the  inability  to  control  the  movements 
involved  in  walking  or  flying.  But  neither  consciousness 
or  the  sense  of  hearing  is  impaired.  Sometimes  in  per- 
sons with  ear  disease  there  occur  similar  manifestations 
on  an  attempt  to  walk,  although  in  like  manner  con- 
sciousness is  unimpaired.  From  the  above  circumstances 
some  speak  of  a  sense  of  equilibrium,  and  locate  it  in  the 
semicircular  canals. 

400.  The  physiology  of  hearing  is  briefly  as  follows. 
Sound  waves  are  collected  and  strengthened  by  the  auricle.^ 

1  There  are  said  to  be  about  three  thousand  arches  of  Corti  in  the  human 
ear,  each  one  of  which  is  tuned  to  respond  to  the  various  musical  sounds. 

2  In  the  lower  animals  whose  ears  are  very  movable,  the  auricles  are  true 
collectors  of  sound.  In  man  they  are  but  slightly  movable,  and  have  to  do 
with  the  quality  of  sound  more  especially,  as  any  one  can  ascertain  by  gently 
pressing  the  auricle  backward  or  forward  when  near  a  number  of  sounds,  as  of 
steam  whistles,  in  a  theatre,  etc. 


300  HEARING. 

Passing  down  the  external  auditory  canal,  they  strike  the 
drum-head  and  cause  it  to  vibrate  and  set  in  motion  the 
ossicles,  which  in  turn,  through  the  foot-plate  of  the  stir- 
rup bone,  impart  motion  to  the  water  of  the  labyrinth. 
Through  this  fluid  the  impressions  of  the  sound  waves  are 
conveyed  to  the  membraneous  labyrinth,  and  thence,  by  the 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve  which  lie  upon  the  mem- 
brane, to  the  brain.  To  be  able  to  hear  accurately  even 
ordinary  sounds,  and  to  be  able  to  train  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing, it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  an  accurate  arrange- 
ment of  the  various  portions  of  the  auditory  apparatus, 
free  movements  of  muscles,  membranes,  and  bones,  of  the 
fluid  of  the  labyrinth,  and  of  the  air  outside  and  inside 
the  drum  cavity. 

401.  Defective  hearing  may  exist  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  sufferer  or  of  his  friends.  Of  570  school 
children  examined  in  New  York  City,^  76  were  found  to  be 
deficient  in  hearing,  either  in  one  or  both  ears,  while  only 
one  had  been  known  by  the  teachers  to  be  deaf,  and  only 
19  out  of  the  76  were  aware  of  aural  defects.^  Neglected 
inflammations  of  the  throat,  especially  in  those  living  in 
an  impure  atmosphere,  eruptive  diseases,  such  as  scarlet 
fever  and  measles^  where  inflammation  extends  into  the 
Eustachian  tubes,  may  give  rise  to  deafness.  Decayed 
teeth  or  inflamed  gums,  by  reflex  irritation  through  a 
ganglion  near  the  ear,  sometimes   produce  earache    and 

1  See  circular  of  information  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  5.     1881. 

2  In  conducting  such  tests  the  voice  is  considered  a  better  test  than  the 
ticking  of  a  watch.  The  examined,  having  one  ear  stopped  by  an  assistant 
while  the  other  ear  is  being  examined,  should  stand  with  closed  eyes  at  vari- 
ous distances  from  the  examiner.  The  sentences  repeated  should  be  intelligible 
and  frequently  changed,  and  should  contain  words  with  hissing  and  guttural 
sounds;  these  not  being  easily  understood  when  hearing  is  impaired.  Though 
this  mode  of  testing  is  the  best,  it  is  not  as  accurate  as  the  test  for  defective 


HEARING.  301 

temporary  deafness.  Blows  upon  the  ear^  always  danger- 
ous^  may  cause  temporary  or  permanent  deafness.  Accumu- 
lation of  ear  wax  is  a  very  common  cause  of  deafness.^ 
Cleaning  the  ear  too  frequently  with  swabs,  or  the 
clearing  out  of  wax  with  pin-heads,  hair-pins,  and  other 
metallic  implements,  will  be  apt  to  excite  infiammation,^ 
and  may  facilitate  the  growth  of  fungi.  Neglected  dis- 
eases of  the  middle  ear  may  result  in  brain  disease,  by 
inflammation  through  the  mastoid  cells.  Ear  diseases  may 
produce  ringing  and  hissing  sounds  in  the  ear,  which  are 
very  annoying.  In  certain  forms  of  disease  the  individual's 
own  voice  sounds  loud  and  disagreeable  to  him. 

402.  Care  of  the  ears.  To  prevent  catching  cold  in  the 
ears,  they  should  be  frequently  but  gently  washed,  and  in 
very  cold  weather  may  be  protected  by  covering  with  a 
loosely-fitting  cap,  tippet,  or  ear  tabs.  Pressure  or  over- 
heat will  increase  the  perspiration,  and  soften  the  skin. 
Draughts  of  air  from  open  windows  in  fast-moving  trains 
should  be  avoided.  Excessive  smoking,  and  the  habit  of 
breathing  through  the  mouth,  are  injurious,  as  they  dry 
the  mucous  passages  of  the  ear,  and  thus  interfere  with 
hearing.  Improper  clothing,  overheated  rooms,  wet  feet, 
etc.,  may  cause  inflammation  of  the  ear.  Prolonged  bath- 
ing in  cold  water,  and  diving   from   a   height,  are  to  be 

1  The  number  of  people  is  very  large  who  apply  at  the  eye  and  ear  infir- 
maries for  relief  from  deafness,  and  who  obtain  it  after  accumulated  ear  wax 
has  been  removed. 

2  The  habit  of  probing  and  scraping  the  external  ear  is  injurious  ;  it  excites 
the  ceruminous  glands  to  pour  out  a  superabundance  of  wax,  which  impairs 
hearing,  and  is  an  annoyance  to  those  who  desire  to  appear  cleanly.  A  graver 
harm  also  may  be  done,  such  as  wounding  the  delicate  lining  of  the  ear,  or 
puncturing  the  drum  membrane,  or  displacing  the  little  bones.  The  best  way 
to  cleanse  the  external  ear  is  to  carefully  inject  warm  water,  or  warm  water 
with  a  little  good  soap  dissolved  in  it,  without  any  scraping,  and  little  or  no 
swabbing.  Any  substance  which  cannot  be  easily  removed  by  syringing  had 
better  be  left  to  the  care  of  a  physician. 


302  HEARING. 

avoided.  When  about  to  dive,  or  swim  under  water, 
a  pledget  of  cotton  in  each  ear  is  advisable,  but  the 
prolonged  wearing  of  cotton  in  the  ears  makes  them 
sensitive. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  is  hearing  effected  ? 

2.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  intensity  of  sound?  the  pitch?  the 

quality  ? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  capacity  of  the  ear  to  distinguish  differ- 

ent sounds  ? 

4.  What  is  the  organ   of  hearing,  and   under  what  divisions  is  it 

studied  ? 

5.  What  does  the  external  ear  comprise? 

6.  Describe  the  auricle  and  its  use. 

7.  Describe  the  auditory  canal. 

8.  W^hat  glands  are  located  in  the  external  ear,  and  what  in  the 

auricle  ? 

9.  Describe  the  memhirina  tympani  or  drum-head. 

10.  What  is  seen  on  looking  at  the  drum-head  by  means  of  proper 

instruments  ? 

11.  What  is  the  middle  ear,  and  what  does  it  comprise? 

12.  Where  are  the  mastoid  cells  ? 

13.  Describe  the  contents  of  the  drum  cavity. 

14.  How  do  the  small  bones  of  the  cavity,  and  the  fluid  of  the  laby- 

rinth, act  to  enable  us  to  hear  ? 

15.  Describe  the  Eustachian  tube  and  its  uses. 

16.  What  is  the  effect  of  its  stoppage  ? 

17.  What  does  the  internal  ear  comprise? 

18.  Describe  the  labyrinth,  and  its  several  divisions  and  contents. 

19.  What  is  distributed  throughout  the  labyrinth  to  convey  the  audi- 

tory impressions  to  the  cerebrum  ? 
,20.  What  is  the  belief  of  physiologists  as  to  the  function  of  the  semi- 
circular canals,  and  on  what  is  this  belief  founded  ? 

21.  Explain  how  it  is  that  we  hear,  and  what  is  essential  for  accurate 

hearing. 

22.  What  may  be  said  as  to  the  prevalence  of  defective  hearing,  and 

to  what  causes  in  general  is  it  due  ?  . 

23.  What  are  some  of  the  consequences  of  ear  diseases  ? 

24.  What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  ears,  and  what  precautions  used  ? 


HEAKIJ^G. 


303 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CHAPTER. 


HEARING. 


I.  Sound 


{How  produced. 
Pitch. 
Composition. 


r  External  ear  s 


II.  Organs 

(or  the  ears 

and  their 

appendages) 


Auricle. 
Auditory  canal. 
Sweat  glands. 
Sebaceous  glands. 
Ceruminous  glands. 
^  Hairs. 

f  Drum-head,   or    membrana    tympani, 

and  its  appendages. 

,^  .,        f  Hammer  or  malleus. 

^.■AA^  /T  ""^W  \  Anvil  or  incus. 

Middle  ear  or^  and  its  contents  |  ^^.^^^^  ^^.  ^^^^^^^ 

^^'^^^  Eustachian  tube. 

Mastoid  cells  in  mastoid  portion  of  the 
temporal  bone. 
^  Muscles,  nerves,  and  ligaments. 

Vestibule. 


'  Labyrinth 


.  Internal  ear 


Cochlea. 

Semicircular  canals. 
Fluid. 

Membraneous  casts. 
Arches  of  Corti. 


.     ,.,  (  Cochlear  branch. 

L  Auditory  nerve  j  Vestibular  branch. 


HI.  Physiology  OF. 


IV.  Defects  and  Preservation. 


CHAPTER     XIX. 

THE    VOICE. 

403.  All  animals,  except  the  very  lowest  types,  possess 
some  audible  method  of  communicating  with  their  fel- 
lows.i  Some  are  incapable  of  producing  more  than  one 
kind  of  sound, — a  monotonous  cry,  —  while  the  sounds 
emitted  by  others  admit  of  considerable  variation.  The 
dog's  notes  of  welcome  to  his  master  are  very  different 
from  the  harsher  sounds  with  which  he  greets  intrusive 
strangers.  But  to  man  alone  is  it  given  to  express  thoughts 
in  articulate  sounds,  or  speech.  Between  the  higher  and 
lower  races  of  mankind  there  is  a  great  difference  as  to 
the  use  of  the  voice,  both  in  language  and  song,  and  its 
development  is  usually  in  direct  relation  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  races.  Idiots,  notwithstanding  their  posses- 
sion of  a  normal  vocal  apparatus,  cannot  usually  converse 
intelligibly,  but  resemble  some  of  the  lower  animals  in 
the  character  of  their  vocal  sounds.     Parrots  and  other 

1  Among  insects  this  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  the  rapid  vibrations 
of  wings,  the  tapping  of  antennae  or  limbs  upon  some  resonant  object,  or  the 
rubbing  of  hard  portions  of  the  body  against  each  other,  the  leg  against  the 
wing,  for  instance,  as  in  the  locust  family.  In  some  beetles  the  sound-pro- 
ducing organ  is  a  kind  of  "  rasp,"  and  moves  upon  an  adjoining  surface.  The 
peculiar  voice  of  the  "  death-watch  "  beetle  is  produced  by  the  insect  raising 
itself  on  its  legs  and  striking  its  chest  against  adjoining  wood.  This  weird 
sound  is  referred  to  by  Gay  :  "The  solemn  death-watch  click'd  the  hour  she 
died."  Sir  John  Lubbock  claims  that  bees  can  vary  their  hum  so  as  to  express 
their  feelings.  Certain  fishes  are  said  to  produce  sounds  almost  musical  in 
character,  by  means  of  muscles  which  control  the  "  swimming  bladder,"  or  by 
other  apparatus.  The  common  domestic  fowl  emits  one  kind  of  sound  when 
quietly  employed  in  scratching  for  food,  and  another  when  a  hawk  approaches. 
The  crane  has  a  marvellously  constructed  trumpet,  for  use  especially  at  night 
and  when  takiiijf  long;  flights. 


THE   VOICE.  305 

birds  can  be  taught,  by  constant  repetition,  to  repeat  diffi- 
cult words  and  sentences,  and  to  imitate  cries,  laughter, 
and  sobbing ;  but  they  do  not  originate,  as  far  as  we  are 
aware,  words  or  sentences,  or  any  articulate  expressions 
of  the  emotions.  The  development  of  speech  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  acuteness  of  the  special  senses, 
for  it  is  through  them  that  we  gather  impressions  which 
develop  into  ideas,  and  thence  into  language.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  hearing.  It  is  only  by  persistent 
and  pains-taking  efforts,  that  some  who  have  been  born 
deaf  have  been  taught  in  some  degree  to  articulate  and 
even  converse,  but,  of  course,  without  that  delicate  modu- 
lation of  tone  and  accentuation  and  emphasis  of  words, 
which  can  only  be  given  by  a  regulating  ear.  And  the 
limited  power  thus  laboriously  acquired  is,  after  all, 
exceedingly  precarious  and  easily  lost,  (a.) 

404.  The  parts  concerned  in  the  production  of  voice  in- 
clude the  special  or  essential  organ  of  the  voice,  the  larynx, 
(Fig.  61),  and  as  accessory,  the  windpipe,  lungs,  respiratory 
muscles,  pharynx,  mouth,  and  the  nasal  cavities.  All  of 
these  parts  are  necessary  for  the  proper  modulation  of  the 
voice.  The  mechanism  required  for  its  production  ma}^  be 
compared  to  that  of  a  reed  organ,  the  lungs  corrresponding 
to  the  bellows  which  supply  air,  the  bronchial  tubes  and 
trachea  to  the  wind  chest  which  conducts  the  air,  the 
larynx,  Avith  its  vibrating  cords,  to  the  vibrating  reed  of  an 
organ,  and  the  pharynx,  mouth,  and  the  parts  in  connec- 
tion with  them,  to  the  body  tube  or  resonant  pipe  which 
modifies  the  sounds  produced.^ 

405.  The  larynx  is  situated  in  the  middle  and  front 
part  of  the  neck,  and  at  the  upper  end  of  the  trachea.     It 

1  The  author  is  indehted  to  the  works  of  Dr.  Elsberg  of  New  York,  and  of 
Dr.  Cohen  of  Philadelphia,  for  some  of  the  definitions  and  suggestions  in  the 
text. 


306  THE    VOICE. 

m 

is  somewhat  triangular  in  shape,  and  from  its  resemblance 
to  a  box,  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  voice-box." 
Its  framework  is  cartilaginous,  and  is  lined  with  mucous 
membrane,  continuous  with  that  of  the  pharynx  and  wind- 
pipe. This  framework  is  composed  mainly  of  four  cartilages 
(Fig.  34)  joined  together.  The  largest  of  the  four  is  the 
thyroid^  ox  shield  cartilage,  a  broad,  thin  plate,  shaped  some- 
thing like  a  cover  of  a  half-open  book,  and  joined  to  the 
hyoid  bone  above  by  a  membrane.  The  back  of  the  book 
represents  the  ridge  of  the  thyroid  cartilage,  as  seen  or 
felt  in  front  of  the  neck,  and  familiarly  known  as  Adam's 
apple.  Below  the  thyroid  cartilage,  and  attached  to  it  by 
an  encircling  membrane,  is  the  second  of  the  four,  or  the 
cricoid^  which  is  shaped  like  a  seal  ring,  with  the  narrow 
portion  in  front.  Lastly,  upon  the  posterior  and  upper 
surface  of  the  cricoid  are  two  slight  eminences  for  articu- 
lation, by  ball-and-socket  joints,  with  two  pyramidal  and 
very  movable  cartilages,  called  the  arytenoids} 

Surmounting  the  arytenoid  cartilages  are  two  very 
small  ones,  known  as  the  supra-arytenoids  or  buffer  carti- 
lages, which  deaden  and  distribute  pressure,  and  serve  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  larynx,  especially  in  swallowing. 
Attached  by  its  lower  and  narrow  end  to  the  inner  and 
upper  part  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  is  the  epiglottis^  or  cover 
cartilage,  shaped  something  like  a  lilac  leaf,  whose  principal 
function  it  is  to  assist  in  preventing  the  entrance  of  food  or 
other  articles  into  the  larynx  during  the  act  of  SAvallowing. 
At  such  times  the  larynx  is  raised,  its  walls  are  apj)roxi- 
mated,  and  the  epiglottis,  as  a  lid,  covers  the  opening  of 
the  glottis.  On  looking  into  the  throat  during  a  full  inspir- 
ation, the  rounded,  free,  and  upper  edge  of  the  epiglottis  is 
sometimes  visible  behind  the  base  of  the  tongue.     Within 

1  I.e.,  like  a  pitcher,  so  called  because  when  joined  together  they  resemble 
the  beak  or  mouth  of  a  pitcher. 


THE   VOICE.  307 

the  folds  of  the  mucous  membrane,  stretching  from  the  epi- 
glottis to  the  arytenoids,  are  two  other  cartilages,  long  and 
sickle-shaped,  termed  "prop"  cartilages,  which  assist  in 
keeping  the  larynx  open. 

406.  In  the  production  of  voice  the  vocal  cords  and 
the  muscles  of  the  larynx  are  most  intimately  concerned. 
The  interior  of  the  larynx  has  on  each  side,  at  about  its 
centre,  a  pair  of  membraneous  and  horizontal  projections, 
with  free  borders,  called  the  superior  and  inferior  vocal 
cords^  or  hands}  The  space  between  the  right  and  left 
vocal  cords  is  the  "  chink "  of  the  glottis,  and  that 
between  each  superior  and  inferior  band,  the  ventricle. 
The  vocal  cords  are  stretched  across  the  larynx  from 
before  backward.  The  upper,  or  superior  pair,  are  mere 
folds  of  membrane.  They  are  less  prominent  and  more 
inelastic  than  the  inferior,  and  are  called  the  ventricular 
bands,  or  false  vocal  cords,  because  they  are  not  concerned 
in  the  production  of  voice.  The  inferior,  or  true  vocal 
cords,  have  elastic  borders,  which  are  attached  in  front  to 
the  angle  in  the  thyroid  cartilage,  just  below  the  attach- 
ment of  the  epiglottis,  and  are  there  comparatively  immov- 
able, while  posteriorly  they  are  attached  to  the  very  mov- 
able arytenoid  cartilages. 

407.  It  is  by  the  contraction  and  relaxation  of  these 
inferior  cords  or  bands  that  the  opening  of  the  glottis  is 
enlarged  or  diminished  in  size  during  respiration,  and  for 
the  production   of   voice.^      The   tension  and   degree    of 

1  The  term  "cord"  in  common  use  is  misleading,  for  the  vocal  cords  are 
not  strings  like  those  of  the  piano  or  harp,  hut  horizontal  ligamentous  hands. 
Their  arrangement  allows  the  edges  or  margins  to  he  sharply  defined  and  to 
vihrate  more  or  less  as  the  air  passes  over  them. 

2  "  You  know  musical  chords  or  strings,  as  those  of  the  guitar,  violin,  etc., 
are  attached  only  at  their  two  ends,  so  that  they  can  freely  vibrate  between  ; 
the  tongues  or  reeds  of  organs,  accordeons,  clarionettes,  and  all  other  artificial 
reed  instruments,  are  usually  attached  at  one  end  only,  so  that  they  have  three 


;o8 


THE   TOICE. 


approximation  of  the  cords  is 
muscles,  and  thus  is  produced 


Fig.  87. 
Posterior  view  of  larynx.  —  T,  base  of  tongue. 
TH,  upper  part  of  thyroid  cartilage  (the  epi- 
glottis is  seen  between  the  upper  portions  of 
this  cartilage  and  behind  the  tongue.  CC, 
the  cricoid  cartilage.  AC,  arytenoid  carti- 
lages, hid  in  part  by  muscles.  TK,  trachea. 
1  and  2,  nerves  of  larynx,  branches  distri- 
buted to  the  tongue,  to  the  epiglottis  and 
the  folds  of  membrane  between  the  epiglot- 
tis and  arytenoids;  and  to  muscles  control- 
ling the  action  of  the  cricoid  and  arytenoid 
cartilages. 


variously  modified  through 
in  part  the  various  diifer- 
ences  of  sound  which 
make  up  the  human  voice. 
Some  of  the  muscles  of 
the  larynx  move  and  ro- 
tate the  arytenoids  out- 
wardly, thus  separating 
tlie  vocal  cords,  and  wid- 
ening the  chink  of  the 
glottis.  Others  move  and 
rotate  the  arytenoids  in- 
wardly, thus  approximat- 
ing the  vocal  cords,  and, 
in  a  varying  degree, 
closing  the  glottis.  The 
remaining  muscles  of  the 
larynx  serve  either  to 
regulate  the  tension  of 
the  cords,  or  are  con- 
cerned in  respiration,  or 
act  upon  the  epiglottis 
during  the  act  of  swallow- 
ing. The  nerves  which 
supply  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  larynx  with 


free  edges  ;  but  the  human  reeds  or  vocal  bauds  are  attached  on  three  sides 
;ind  have  only  one  free  edge.  Those  of  you  who  know  what  a  large  number  of 
reed  or  organ  pipes  are  needed  in  the  organ  made  by  man,  to  produce  the  notes 
of  varying  pitch  and  timbre,  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  astonishment  at  the 
fact  that  in  the  organ  in  man's  body  a  single  reed-pipe,  the  larynx  —  by  a  won- 
derful power  of  variation  inherent  in  itself  —  sufhces  for  the  production  of  the 
most  various  sounds.  No  musical  instrument  has  ever  been  constructed  by 
man  that  approaches  in  perfection  or  effectiveness  that  of  the  human  voice." 
—  The  Throat  and'  ita  Functions.    Louis  Elsberg.  A.M.,  M.D. 


THE    VOICE.  .309 

sensibility  and   the  muscles  with  motor  power  are  four 
in  number. 

408.  Before  the  introduction  and  use  of  the  laryngo- 
scope there  was  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  mechanism  for 
the  production  of  voice.^  An  examination  of  the  interior 
of  the  larynx  with  this  instrument  during  ordinary  respi- 
ration shows  the  chink  of  the  glottis  to  be  quite  widely 
open  during  inspiration,  but  much 
narrower  during  expiration,  for 
in  the  latter  case  the  muscles  of 
the  larynx  are  passive,  air  b'eing 
gently  forced  out.  But  it  is 
during  vocalization  that  the  vocal 
cords  are  particularly  well  de- 
fined.    Speech   is  shown  by  the  ^'s-  ^^' 

■^                    1            rt>            1      1  View  of  the  interior  of  the  larynx 

laryngoscope    to    be    effected    dur-  during  respiration.    Rings  of  the 

•^      "             ^  trachea  seen  through  the  laryn- 

ing  expiration  only,  though  harsh  geal  opening, the  vocal  cords (rep- 

o         IT                            J  ^              o   ^           ^  resented  m  white)  being  apart. 

sounds  may  be  formed  during  in- 
spiration. As  soon  as  an  attempt  is  made  to  produce  a 
sound,  the  cords  are  thrown  into  action.  They  are  made 
tense,  and  are  closely  approximated  in  the  production  of 
high  musical  notes  or  shrill  sounds,  and  are  relaxed  and 
moved  further  apart  during  the  emission  of  sounds  opposite 
to  these. 

409.  Associated  with  the  varying  degree  of  approxima- 
tion and  tension  of  the  cords  are  their  vibratory  motions 
as  the  air  passes  between  them.     All  sounds  are  produced 

1  An  oval  or  round  mirror  attached  to  a  long  handle,  which,  placed  in  the 
back  and  upper  part  of  the  throat  reflects  the  interior  of  the  larynx,  and,  under 
favorable  conditions,  a  portion  of  the  trachea.  This  instrument  originated  from 
the  observations  of  the  celebrated  singing  teacher,  Garcia,  upon  himself,  and 
the  investigations  of  two  Austrian  physicians,  Turck  and  Czermak.  The  first 
successful  demonstration  of  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords  is  said  to  have  been 
made  by  Garcia  in  1854. 


310  THE   VOICE. 

by  wave-like  vibrations  of  the  air  imparted  to  it  by  vibra- 
tory motions  of  various  kinds.  Noises,  for  example,  are 
produced  by  waves  of  sound  which  follow  one  another  in 
an  irregular  and  confused  manner,  while  in  music  the  se- 
quence is  regular,  producing  the  rhythmical  sounds  known 
as  musical  notes.^  For  the  production  of  the  simplest 
vocal  sound  the  cords  must  be 
brought  into  close  approximation, 
and  must  be  capable  of  easy  vibra- 
tion. If  they  cannot  so  approach 
each  other,  whispering  results.  If 
they  are  not  sufficiently  smooth  or 
straight,  or  if  their  action  is  irregu- 
Fig.  89.  Itir,  or  they  have  upon  their  edges 

The  position  of  the  vocal  bands      flakcS    of    UlUCUS,    tllC    tOUCS    bcCOmC 
during  phonation.  ' 

rough  and  hoarse  in  character.^ 
410.  The  variations  in  vocal  sounds  depend  mainly  upon 
their  intensity^  pitchy  and  quality.  Intensity,  or  loudness, 
depends  upon  the  elasticity  of  the  vocal  bands  and  the 
force  of  the  escaping  air.  The  more  relaxed  the  bands 
are,  and  the  stronger  the  current  of  air  over  them,  the 
larger  are  the  sound-waves,  and  the  louder  the  sounds 
produced. 

Differences  in  pitch  depend  upon  the  rapidity  Avith 
which  the  bands  vibrate.  Tlie  more  rapid  the  vibrations, 
and  the  closer  the  cords  are  approximated,  the  higher  the 

1  The  tones  of  musical  instruments  are  caused  eitluv  by  striking  or  rub- 
bing with  a  bow  against  sharp  edges,  or  by  blowing  against  elastic  tongues 
6t  vibrators.  The  character  of  the  tones  produced  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  stroke,  the  place  struck,  and  the  relative  density,  rigidity,  and  elasticity 
of  the  edge  or  tongue. 

-  Tlie  varying  tones  produced  through  elastic  bands  more  or  less  parallel 
with  each  other,  and  with  edges  of  varying  rigidity,  may  be  illustrated  by 
blowing  through  glass  tubes  of  varying  length  and  calibre,  to  the  opposite 
ends  of  which  two  pieces  of  thin  rubber  cloth  are  firmly  fastened,  the  free 
vedges  being  parallel  or  nearly  so. 


THE  VOICE.  311 

pitch.     The  slower  they  are,  and  the  less  closely  the  cords 
approximate,  the  lower  the  sound. 

The  quality,  or  timbre,  is  that  characteristic  by  which 
we  can  distinguish  different  voices.  Through  this  the 
voices  of  our  friends  are  recognized  even  though  their 
features  may  be  concealed.  As  the  violinist  becomes 
attached  to  a  certain  violin  because  of  its  peculiar  tone,  or 
the  pianist  to  his  piano,  so  we  learn  to  value  the  quality  of 
certain  voices.  Quality  is  of  a  composite  nature,  and  is 
due  to  the  more  or  less  harmonious  relations  between 
intensity,  pitch,  and  other  characteristics  of  sound,  and 
depends  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  resonant  cavi- 
ties of  the  throat,  mouth,  and  nose.  Enlarged  tonsils,  loss 
of  teeth,  dryness  of  the  mucous  membrane,  cleft  palate, 
hare  lip,  and  other  defects,  change  the  quality  of  vocal 
sounds.  Our  vowel  sounds  are  clearly  enunciated  only 
when  the  sounding  breath  is  not  obstructed  above  the 
larynx  in  its  outward  passage.  With  the  mouth  wide 
oj^en,  only  an  aspirate  sound  can  be  made  by  the  vocal 
bands.  Consonant  sounds  result  when  there  is  an  obstruc- 
tion by  the  lips,  tongue,  teeth,  etc.,  to  the  outward  motion 
of  the  air.  The  position  of  the  tongue  and  of  the  soft 
palate  favor  the  emission  of  certain  sounds.  A  "  nasal 
twang"  is  the  result  of  talking,  or  of  emitting  sounds,  with 
the  nose  or  the  passages  thereto,  from  the  lungs,  more  or 
less  obstructed.  It  is  not  so  much  because  we  talk 
through  the  nose,  as  because  we  do  not  use  the  nasal  vent 
with  sufficient  freedom.  It  is  called  a  "nasal  twang," 
therefore,  because  the  closed  or  contracted  nasal  a'pertures 
have  caused  the  unpleasant  modification  of  the  sound. 
The  different  qualities  of  voice  depend  not  only  upon  nat- 
ural variations  in  the  larynx  and  the  accessory  organs  of 
the  voice,  but  also  upon  the  degree  of  culture  or  of  neglect 
and  abuse   to  which  the  voice  and  its  organs  have  been 


312  THE   VOICE. 

subjected.^  By  proper  training  the  quality  of  the  voice 
may  be  very  much  improved.  In  some  persons  it  is  so 
perfectly  modulated,  that,  while  the  voice  is  full  and  clear, 
it  never  seems  too  high,  top  low,  too  harsh,  or  too  flat.^ 
There  is  also  a  property  of  voice  known  as  reach^  i.e.^ 
"the  penetrant  power  of  a  sound  over  distances  and 
obstacles,  such  as  other  sounds,  and  is  due  to  the  purity  of 
the  tone,  which  in  its  turn  is  dependent  on  the  accuracy 
with  which  it  is  produced."  At  the  Peace  Jubilee  in 
Boston,  in  1869,  Madame  Parepa  Rosa's  voice  was  distin- 
guishable above  those  of  an  accompanying  chorus  of  nearly 
12,000  singers,  an  orchestra  of  over  1,000  instruments, 
and  in  a  hall  where  the  audience  consisted  of  over  40,000 
people.  The  ordinary  range  or  compass  of  the  voice  is 
about  two  octaves,  seldom  less  than  one,  or  more  than  two 
and  a  half.  In  some  great  singers  the  range  is  three  or 
three  and  a  half.^ 

411.  The  peculiar  mode  of  speaking  known  as  ventril- 
oquism is  a  curious  modification  of  the  voice,  and  is  not,  as 
the   word  literally  means,   "talking  from   the   stomach." 

1  Among  the  Greeks  for  the  training  of  the  voice  there  were  three  sets  of 
teachers,  the  first  to  develop  power  and  range  of  voice,  the  second  to  improve 
the  quality,  the  third  to  teach  modulation  and  inflection. 

2  The  capabilities  of  some  voices  are  almost  incredible.  It  is  related  by- 
Mrs.  Seiler,  in  her  manual  on  "The  Voice  in  Singing,"  that  the  singer,  Fari- 
nelli,  once  competed  with  a  trumpeter  who  accompanied  him  in  an  aria  : 
"After  both  had  several  times  dwelt  on  notes  in  which  each  sought  to  excel 
the  other  in  power  and  duration,  they  prolonged  a  note  with  a  double  trill  in 
thirds,  which  they  continued  until  both  seemed  to  be  exhausted.  At  last  the 
trumpeter  gave  up,  entirely  out  of  breath,  while  Farinelli,  without  taking 
breath,  prolonged  the  note  with  renewed  volume  of  sound  trilling,  and  ending 
finally  with  the  most  diflicult  of  roulades." 

^  "  The  entire  compass  of  the  human  voice  exceeds  five  octaves,  for  there 
have  been  bassos,  as  Grosser,  Fischer,  etc.,  who  could  sing  the  contra  F  of  40 
vibrations  with  ease  and  power,  and  sopranos  like  Carlotta  Patti  and  Christine 
Nilsson  go  up  with  ease  to  the  high  F  of  1400  vibrations,  while  the  '  Bastar- 
della'  and  Mrs.  Becker  of  St.  Petersburg  could  go  up' to  and  beyond  the  still 
higher  C  of  2000  vibrations." —  The  Throat  and  its  Functions.    Elsbbbg. 


THE   VOICE.  313 

The  power  of  the  ventriloquist  is  sufficiently  marvellous 
without  our  deriving  it  from  a  still  more  marvellous  source. 
By  some  occult  management  of  the  vocal  organs,  by  great 
skill  in  mimicry,  and  by  considerable  address  in  appealing 
to  the  imagination,  different  human  voices,  or  animal 
cries,  or  other  noises,  are  caused  by  the  ventriloquist  to 
seem  to  issue  from  persons  or  objects  outside  of  him,  or 
from  a  distance,  without  his  apparently  moving  his  lips. 
It  is  this  remarkable  power  which  will  doubtless  account 
for  many  of  the  wonderful  responses  which  are  said  to 
have  been  made  by  the  ancient  oracles.^ 

412.  The  chief  varieties  of  voice  are  four  in  number ; 
viz.,  the  bass  and  tenor  in  the  male  sex,  and  the  contralto 
or  alto,  and  the  soprano,  in  the  female.  There  is  a  variety 
of  voice  between  the  bass  and  tenor  known  as  the  baritone, 
and  one  between  the  alto  and  soprano  called  the  mezzo- 
soprano.  Ordinarily  the  strength  and  beauty  of  bass  and 
contralto  voices  are  in  the  lower  notes,  and  of  soprano 
and  tenor  in  the  higher,  for  bass  singers  may  reach  as  high 
notes  as  tenors,  and  alto  singers  as  sopranos,  or  vice  versa, 
but  they  do  not  attain  the  proper  clearness  and  richness  of 
tone.  A  falsetto  voice  is  one  pitched  above  its  natural 
compass.  In  early  childhood  the  character  of  the  voice  is 
about  the  same  in  both  sexes.     The  quality  especially  of 

1  "  From  the  observations  of  Muller  and  Colombat,  it  seems  that  the  essential 
mechanical  parts  of  the  process  of  ventriloquism  consist  in  taking  a  full  inspi- 
ration, then  keeping  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  neck  fixed,  and  speaking  with 
the  mouth  almost  closed,  and  the  lips  and  lower  jaw  as  motionless  as  possible, 
while  air  is  very  slowly  expired  through  a  very  narrow  glottis,  care  being 
taken,  also,  that  none  of  the  expired  air  passes  through  the  nose.  But,  as 
observed  by  Miiller,  much  of  the  ventriloquist's  skill  in  imitating  the  voices 
coming  from  particular  directions,  consists  in  deceiving  other  senses  than  hear- 
ing. We  never  distinguish  very  readily  the  direction  in  which  sounds  reach 
our  ear  ;  and  when  our  attention  is  directed  to  a  particular  point,  our  imagina- 
tion is  very  apt  to  refer  to  that  point  whatever  sounds  we  may  hear."  —  Hand- 
hook  of  Physlolof/i/.     KiRKE. 


314  THE   VOICE. 

the  soprano  voice  in  boys  is  often  prized  in  the  rendering 
of  church  music.  At  about  the  age  of  fourteen  years  the 
boy's  voice  begins  to  change,  or  "  crack  "  as  it  is  called. 
The  larynx  increases  in  size,  the  power  of  regulating  its 
muscular  control  is  diminished,  and  the  falsetto  voice  is 
liable  to  break  in  upon  the  ordinary  voice,  especially  in 
declaiming  and  singing.  The  voices  of  girls  at  about  the 
same  age  change  somewhat.  They  develop  strength  and 
compass,  the  quality  remaining  about  the  same.  But  with 
both  sexes  at  this  period  there  should  be  no  systematic  culti- 
vation of  the  voice. 

413.  Weak  and  improperly  modulated  voices  can  he 
improved  by  proper  care  and  culture.  To  this  end  all 
diseased  conditions,  such  as  enlarged  tonsils,  a  very  relaxed 
soft  palate,  nasal  or  2)haryngeal  catarrh,  defective  teeth, 
etc.,  should  be  remedied,  and  also  muscular  exercises 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  each  individual,  should  be  system- 
atically practised.  The  muscles  of  the  diaphragm,  and 
those  of  the  chest,  may  be  exercised  by  occasional  full  res- 
pirations, and  by  the  hands  being  placed  from  time  to  time 
against  a  wall,  and  the  chest  moyed  forcibly  towards  and 
away  from  the  wall.  ''  The  muscles  of  the  larynx  are  best 
exercised  by  systematic  singing  exercises  on  the  tones  at  or 
near  the  middle  of  the  ordinary  compass  of  the  individual." 
Repetitions  of  the  act  of  swallowing,  and  various  move- 
ments of  the  lips,  cheeks,  and  tongue,  are  valuable.  Wind 
instruments  adapted  to  the  strength  of  the  performer  are 
also  of  service  in  some  instances.  If  they  are  too  power- 
ful, or  are  used  excessively,  injury  to  the  lungs  is  liable  to 
result.  In  particular  the  voice  should  be  frequently  used 
in  a  natural  and  proper  manner.  Spasmodic  and  prolonged 
use,  especially  if  the  voice  is  pitched  too  high,  strains  the 
vocal  apparatus,  and  produces  inflaimnation  of  the  nnicous 
meinbrane  of  the  throat.     The  forced  and  unnecessarA^  res- 


THE    VOICE.  315 

pirations,  especially  of  the  chest  or  thoracic  variety,  some- 
times indulged  in  by  public  speakers  and  singers,  place  the 
thorax  and  larynx  in  tiresome  and  constrained  positions, 
thus  interfering  with  the  natural  use  of  the  voice,  and  serv- 
ing to  concentrate  the  thoughts  upon  the  delivery  alone. 
In  fact  the  training  of  the  voice  should  begin  in  childhood, 
when  the  vocal  organs  are  most  pliable.  It  should  be 
entrusted  to  competent  teachers,  and  like  other  forms  of 
muscular  exercise  should  be  systematically  and  daily  pur- 
sued, but  never  to  the  point  of  fatigue.  It  is  related  of  a 
celebrated  musician  that,  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  why  he 
practised  so  systematically,  he  replied,  "If  I  neglect  to 
practise  one  day,  I  notice  it ;  if  for  two  days,  my  friends 
notice  it ;  and  if  for  three,  the  public  notice  it." 

Even  in  adult  life,  the  strength  and  quality  of  the  voice 
may  be  improved,  and  clergymen,  actors,  and  other  public 
speakers  have  had  their  usefulness  increased  by  lessons 
received  quite  late  in  life  in  elocution  and  the  care  of  the 
voice,  (a.) 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  audible  means  of  communication  of  ani- 

mals and  men,  and  on  what  does  its  development  depend? 
Illustrate. 

2.  With  what  is  the  development  of  speech  intimately  connected? 

Illustrate. 

3.  What  parts  of  the  body  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  voice  ? 

4.  Which  is  the  special  or  essential  organ  of  voice? 

5.  Describe  the  larynx,  its  cartilages,  vocal  cords,  and  nmscles. 

6.  How  are  the  differences  of  sound  which  make  up  the  voice  pro- 

duced ? 

7.  How  has  the  mechanism  for  this  purpose  been  ascertained  ? 

8.  What  does  an  examination  of  the  interior  of  the  larj^ix  with  the 

laryngoscope  reveal  ? 

9.  How  are  sounds  produced,  and  why  ar«  some  sounds  musical  and 

oth«rs  not? 


316  THE   VOICE. 

10.  What  causes  the  differences  in  their  intensity?   pitch? 

11.  What  is  the  quality  of  a  voice,  and  on  what  does  it  depend? 

12.  What  is  ventriloquism  ? 

13.  What  is  reach? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  range  or  compass  of  the  human  voice  ? 

15.  What  are  the  chief  varieties  of  voice  ? 

16.  How  and  when  do  the  voices  of  boys  and  girls  change? 

17.  How  is  the  voice  modulated  to  produce  the  various  articulate 

sounds  ? 

18.  What  is  to  be  said  of  nasal  sounds?  of  clearness  of  voice? 

19.  What  general  directions  are  there  for  the  care  and  culture  of  the 

voice  V 


ANALYSIS. 


31' 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE  NINETEENTH   CHAPTER. 


THE    VOICE. 

I.  OB.JECT,  and  among  whom  most  developed. 

f  Thyroid. 
Cricoid. 

Two  arytenoids. 
Cartilages  ...-l  Two   supra-ary- 
tenoids. 
Two  prop. 
,  Epiglottis. 

Vocal  cords     i  Superior  or  false. 
Vocaicoias . .  -J  jj^fg^ior  or  true. 

Chink  of  the  glottis. 


'  Essential,— Larynx 


II.  Organs  ■< 


Accessory 


III.  How  Produced. 


Muscles  and  nerves. 
L  Action  and  how  examined. 
Lungs. 
Respiratory  nmscles. 

r  The  trachea. 
A  •         .  J  Pharynx. 

An-  passages  <  ^^^^^^^i  and  its  contents. 
I  Nasal  cavities. 


r  Harsh  and  nmsical. 
IV.  Sounds  .  .  I  Litensity.     Pitch.     Quality. 


L  Articulate 
V.  Reach. 

VI.  Range  or  Compass. 
VII.  Ventriloquism. 


As  to  age 
Vni.  Varieties  ^  As  to  sex 
Falsetto 


IX.  Care  and  Culture. 


(  Na 
I  Ob 


atural. 


Obstructed. 


r  Bass. 
Male .  .  .  ^  Baritone. 
L  Tenor. 

r  Alto. 

Female  .  ■{  Mezzo-soprano. 
1^  Soprano. 


EMEEGElsrCIES. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

EMERGENCIES. 

The  following  directions  as  to  the  care  of  the  injured  are  in- 
tended to  increase  the  efficiency  of  those  who  may  wish  to  assist 
them,  and  are  of  especial  value  to  any  one  who  has  some  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  these  directions  are  not  full  enough  to  enable  the 
laity  to  undertake  the  prolonged  treatment  of  a  case,  and  that 
whenever  it  is  practicable  a  physician  is  to  be  sent  for  and  the 
injured  person  given  into  his  charge.  When  called,  the  doctor 
should  be  informed  of  the  nature  of  the  accident,  that  he  may 
bring  with  him  the  proper  appliances  and  restoratives.  Such 
directions  as  the  following,  carefully  observed,  will  often  save 
life.  As  Dr.  D.  Hayes  Agnew  of  Philadelphia  puts  it,  "  every 
surgeon  knows  full  well  that  in  many  cases  of  injury  the  crisis 
is  reached  before  the  patient  arrives  at  the  hospital  gate,  and 
the  lack  of  instructed  aid  at  first  often  turns  the  table  against 
him."  There  have  been  instances  also  where  officiousness  on 
the  part  of  some  b3^stander  has  increased  the  danger  of  the  in- 
jured person.! 

GENERAL   DIRECTIONS. 

First.  Do  not  join  the  crowd  assembled  about  an  injured 
person  unless  you  can  be  of  service  ;  for,  as  the  throng  increases 
in  numbers  and  presses  more  closely  about  the  sufferer,  his 
chances  for  recover^'  are   lessened.     His  air  supply  is  dimin- 


1  To  replace  officiousness  with  efficiency  is  the  aim  of  the  Esmarch  Samari- 
tan Schools  in  Germany,  of  the  St.  John  Ambulance  Association  of  England, 
and  of  such  societies  in  this  country  as  the  Society  for  Instruction  in  First  Aid 
to  the  Injured  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn. 


322  EMERGENCIES. 

At  least  ten  feet  of  space  on  eveiy  side  of  the  injured  person 
should  be  kept  free  from  everybod}',  except  those  actually  con- 
cerned in  caring  for  him. 

Second,  When  you  withdraw,  take  as  man}'  idlers  as  you 
can  with  3'ou.  If  no  one  has  assumed  charge  of  the  case,  take 
it  in  hand,  going  quickly  but  calmly  to  work ;  but,  if  there  is 
already  a  leader,  offer  him  3'onr  assistance,  being  willing  to  go 
for  a  doctor,  blankets,  stimulants,  etc.,  or  do  whatever  is  de- 
sired. Do  not  argue  with  others  who  are  assisting  as  to 
methods  of  work,  for  delay  imperils  the  life  of  the  one  you 
desire  to  save.  On  the  other  hand,  do  not  proceed  too  rapidly. 
For  example,  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment,  it  not  infre- 
quently happens  that  attempts  are  made  to  administer  stimu- 
lants before  the  injured  person  can  swallow. 

Third.  The  person  before  you  may  be  partially  or  entirely 
unconscious.  Unconsciousness  is  the  result  of  injury  to  the 
brain  by  shock,  compression  from  fracture  of  the  skull,  by 
apoplexy,  epilepsy,  or  other  disease  of  the  brain,  by  narcotic 
poisons  such  as  opium,  morphine,  chloroform,  or  alcohol,  by 
loss  of  blood,  or  by  blood  poisoning,  as  in  some  forms  of  kid- 
ney disease.  If  there  is  entire  insensibility,  an  arm  when  lifted 
and  let  gently  fall  offers  no  muscular  resistance,  but  is  "  a  dead 
weight"  ;  the  pupil  of  the  ej'e  does  not  contract  on  exposure  to 
light ;  the  eyeball  itself  is  not  sensitive  when  touched,  and  no 
effort  even  at  closing  the  lids  occurs  when  the  operator's 
finger  is  brought  quickly  towards  the  eye.  Whereas,  if  the 
unconsciousness  is  partial  or  is  feigned,  as  in  some  cases  of  so- 
called  hysteria,  the  conditions  are  opposite. 

Fourth.  Restoration  to  consciousness  is  effected  differently, 
depending  upon  the  case.  In  "faint"  or  "shock,"  a  few 
minutes  of  rest  may  suffice,  the  patient  being  laid  upon  his 
back,  with  all  impediments  to  free  breathing  removed.  A  dash 
of  cold  water  upon  the  face,  tickling  of  the  nostrils,  and  the 
application  to  them  of  an  open  l)ottle  of  smelling-salts  or  am- 
monia (spirits  of  hartshorn)  may  be  necessar}'.  Intoxicated 
persons    sometimes    require    more  vigorous  measures,  such  as 


EMERGEKCIES.  323 

slapping  of  the  face,  tickling  or  slapping  of  the  soles  of  the 
feet,  and  twisting  of  the  hair.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  effects  of  drink  may  be  associated  with  severe  forms  of  un- 
consciousness, and  vigorous  restorative  measures  applied  to 
one  insensible  from  apoplexy,  or  even  shock,  imperil  life.  Un- 
consciousness from  suffocation  may  demand  attempts  at  estab- 
lishing respiration,  to  be  hereafter  described. 

When  the  skin  is  cold,  restore  warmth  by  gentle  friction 
with  the  hands,  and  applications  of  heated  flannels  and  bot- 
tles filled  with  hot  water,  especiall}'  to  the  feet,  about  the 
body,  and  in  the  armpits.  If  the  head  is  very  hot,  cold  water 
or  pieces  of  ice  may  be  applied  to  it.  The  injured  person  gen- 
erally needs  abundance  of  air,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  create 
a  current  by  the  use  of  a  fan  ;  but,  at  the  first  evidence  of 
chilliness,  the  patient  should  be  covered  with  blankets,  shawls, 
coats,  etc.,  but  not  so  heavily  as  to  induce  perspiration.  If 
the  person  is  able  to  swallow,  give  a  sip,  every  few  minutes,  of 
a  mixture  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  thirty  drops  to  a 
wineglassful  of  water,  of  of  brandy  or  whiskey,  one  part  to 
four  or  five  of  water.  If  wine  be  used,  a  much  larger  amount 
is  necessary. 

Fifth.  The  examination  of  an  injured  person,  especially  when 
insensible,  is  to  be  conducted  with  the  greatest  care.  Rough 
handling  may  open  a  wound  in  which  bleeding  had  ceased,  and 
start  a  hemorrhage  which  may  not  be  readily  controlled,  or  a 
jagged  end  of  a  broken  bone  may  be  made  to  wound  seriously 
an  important  blood  vessel  or  nerve,  or  severe  pain  and  distress 
may  be  otherwise  induced.  Note  particularly  the  position  of 
the  body,  whether  the  face  is  flushed  or  pale,  whether  the 
pupils  respond  to  light,  what  is  the  state  of  the  respiration, 
whether  quiet  and  natural  or  more  or  less  noisy  or  diflScult,  and 
the  condition  of  the  pulse  whether  weak  or  strong.^ 

1  The  condition  of  the  pulse  is  indicated  by  the  comparative  ease  or  diffi- 
culty with  which  the  flow  of  blood  in  an  artery  can  be  stopped  by  the  pressure 
of  the  finger.  Examine  the  entire  body  carefully  in  your  search  for  fractures, 
wounds,  unusual  swellings,  or  depressions. 


324  EMERGENCIES. 

Sixth.  To  remove  an  injured  person,  use  a  stretcher,  i.e., 
a  portable  bed  made  for  tlie  purpose,  or  a  strong  shawl  or  sheet 
doubled  and  suspended  between  two  poles,  a  wide  board,  a  door, 
a  window  shutter,  a  ladder,  or  a  small  cot  bedstead.  If  the 
distance  is  short,  and  a  litter  cannot  be  obtained,  the  patient 
may  be  carried  by  two  persons  so  locking  their  arms  together 
that  a  chair  is  improvised.  If  the  distance  is  great,  an  ambu- 
lance may  be  devised  by  placing  one  or  more  mattresses  in  some 
covered  vehicle  of  sufficient  size.  In  lifting  an  injured  person, 
three  attendants  are  generally  required  :  two  to  support  the 
body,  while  one  attends  to  the  injured  part.  When  about  to 
convey  by  a  stretcher,  depute  some  one  to  keep  back  the  crowd, 
while  another  goes  before  to  secure  a  comfortable  shelter. 
It  is  often  advisable  to  cover  the  face  of  the  injured  one  with 
a  handkerchief,  veil,  or  other  light  article,  to  prevent  the  un- 
comfortable feeling  of  being  stared  at.  He  should  be  instructed 
not  to  answer  the  questions  of  mere  curiosity  seekers. 

SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS. 

Suffocation,  Drowning,  etc.  —  Artificial  Respiration.  There 
is  a  group  of  accidents  irf  which  death  results  from  the 
deprivation  of  air.  The  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas,  which 
ought  to  escape  from  the  lungs  during  the  process  of  breathing, 
and  be  replaced  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  accumulates  in  the 
blood,  deadens  the  activity  of  the  nerve  centres  of  the  brain, 
breathing  ceases,  and,  later  on,  the  heart  ceases  to  beat.  The 
group  comprises  cases  of  suffocation,  i.e.,  smothering,  hanging, 
choking,  and  drowning.  Where  there  is  insensibility  or  appar- 
ent death,  resort  must  be  had  to  artificial  respiration^  the  prac- 
tice of  which  may  be  readily  understood  by  the  following  rules.  ^ 
At  the  same  time  this  process  is  being  carried  out,  warmth  may 
be  imparted  to  the  body  by  friction,  and  in  cases  of  drowning,  by 
substituting  dry  clothing  or  warm  blankets  foi*  wet  garments. 


1  In  accidents  of  this  kind  the  face  is  generally  swollen  and  of  a  bluish 
color.  Sometimes  the  eyes  and  tongue  protrude.  About  the  mouth  is  more 
or  less  mucus,  occasionally  streaked  with  blood. 


EMERGENCIES.  325 

Rule  I.  Establish  and  maintain  a  free  entrance  for  air  into 
the  windpipe.  The  first  part  of  this  direction  is  complied  with 
by  removing  tight  clothing  or  other  impediment  from  the  face, 
neck,  and  chest,  and  by  emptying  the  mouth,  throat,  and  air 
passages.  This  latter  process  is  accomplished  by  having  the 
body  placed  for  a  few  seconds  on  an  inclined  plane,  with  the 
head  and  face  downwards.  The  operator,  then  opening  the 
month,  draws  the  tongue  forwards,  holding  it  by  means  of  a 
handkerchief,  and  with  the  index  finger  of  the  other  hand,  cov- 
ered with  a  handkerchief,  sweeps  around  the  mouth  and  throat, 
dislodging  water,  mucus,  or  other  substance  which  may  pre- 
vent the  ingress  of  air.^  The  inclined  position  of  the  bod}^ 
favors  the  escape  of  any  water  that  ma}-  be  in  the  lungs  or 
stomach. 

The  second  part  of  the  above  direction  is  accomplished  by 
keeping  the  tongue  from  falling  back  into  the  mouth  until 
breathing  is  fully  established,  letting  an  assistant  hold  it  with 
its  tip  on  a  level  with,  or  a  little  beyond,  the  front  teeth,  or  by 
fastening  it  there  with  an  elastic  band  under  the  chin. 

Rule  II.  Place  the  body  in  the  most  favorable  position  for  the 
fidl  expansion  of  the  chest.  This  is  in  general  upon  the  back, 
with  the  head  and  body  inclined  a  little  higher  than  the  feet, 
and  with  a  coat  or  two,  shawls,  a  pile  of  sand  or  seaweed, 
under  the  back  and  between  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  throw  out 
the  ribs,  and  afford  the  greatest  capacity  to  the  chest. ^ 

1  When  accidents  occur,  medical  assistance  should  be  sought  immediately, 
and,  in  cases  of  drowning,  blankets  and  dry  clothing  sent  for.  Anything 
that  impedes  the  breathing  should  be  rapidly  removed  by  cutting  or  tearing. 
Valuable  time  is  lost  by  endeavoring  to  untie  or  unbutton.  To  hold  a  body 
up  by  the  heels,  so  that  the  water  (in  cases  of  drowning)  may  run  out,  is 
unnecessary.  To  roll  a  body  upon  a  barrel  is  a  barbarous  custom,  is  attended 
with  the  danger  of  injury  to  internal  organs,  and  is  not  to  be  tolerated.  It 
is  seldom  that  any  large  quantity  of  water  enters  the  lungs  or  stomach.  In- 
clining the  body  upon  a  board  or  shutter,  or  by  the  aid  of  the  hands  alone  is 
sufficient. 

2  This  position  is  the  one  made  use  of  in  Sylvester's  method  of  resuscitation. 
In  the  Michigan,  and  other  methods  to  be  hereafter  mentioned,  resuscitation 
is  accomplished  with  the  face  downwards,  or  with  the  body  lying  horizontally 


326  EMERGENCIES. 

Rule  III.  Imitate  the  natural  movements  of  respiration^  i.e., 
the  chest  is  made  to  expand  and  contract  slowl}'  and  methodi- 
cally about  j^/i^ee^i,  times  a  minute^  though  at  first  the  movements 
should  not  be  more  than  four  or  five  a  minute,  graduall}^  in- 
creasing to  fifteen.  If  suffocation  is  partial,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case  in  hanging,  or  smothering  b}'  irritating  gases,  or  when 
the  bod}'  has  been  immersed  in  water  but  a  very  short  time, 
simple  compression  with  the  hands  of  the  lower  portions  of  the 
lateral  chest  walls,  alternating  with  relief  from  pressure  by 
removing  the  hands,  associated  with  draughts  of  air  and  with 
dashes  of  cold  water  (or  cold  and  hot  alternately)  upon  the 
face,  the  tickling  of  the  nostrils  with  a  feather  or  the  end  of  a 
handkerchief,  or  placing  ammonia  to  the  nostrils,  tend  to  excite 
inspiration,  and  may  be  sufficient.  If  the  case  is  a  severe  one, 
in  addition  to  the  above  measures,  one  or  other  of  the  so-called 
methods  of  artificial  respiration  is  to  be  used.  The  one  most 
commonly  used  is  "  Sylvester's  Method,"  viz.  :  the  operator 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  patient,  grasps  both  arms  at  or  near 
the  elbows,  draws  them  steadil}'  upwards  until  they  meet  above 
the  head  (thus  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs  b^'  expansion  of  the 
chest) ,  where  the}-  are  kept  for  a  moment,  and  then  returned 
to  the  sides.  Then  gentle  and  firm  pressure  is  exerted  against 
the  sides  of  the  chest  for  a  moment,  aided,  if  possible,  by 
pressure  upon  the  breast  bone,  thus  expelling  foul  air  from 
the  lungs.  These  movements  are  repeated  alternately  until 
breathing  is  restored,  when  attention  is  especially  given  to  the 
establishment  of  circulation  and  warmth. 

Rule  IV.  Maintain  the  breathing  now  established  by  inducing 
circulation  and  icarmth  and  by  proper  after-treatment.  Though 
the  friction  of  the  surface  of  the  body  by  attendants,  and  the 
application  of  warm,  dry  blankets,  may  have  been  of  some 
service,  still,  the  warmth  of   the  body  must   be  promoted  b}' 

on  the  side,  or  on  the  back,  with  the  head  lower  than  the  trunk.  The  princi- 
pal methods  of  resuscitation  are  given,  that  the  operator  may  vary  from  one 
to  another  if  he  finds  himself  wearied  by  the  pursuance  of  any  one.  The  prin- 
ciples involved  in  all  are  essentially  the  same. 


EMERGENCIES.  327 

more  friction  under  the  blankets,  and  by  the  application  of  hot 
flannels,  bottles  or  bladders  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks,  etc., 
to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the  armpits,  to  the  sides,  between  the 
thighs,  and  to  the  feet.  If  a  house  is  dose  by,  and  the  patient 
can  he  carried  to  it  safely,  if  warmth  is  not  fully  established,  a 
warm  bath  may  be  given,  the  body  being  immersed  to  the  neck 
for  not  more  than  five  or  six  minutes. ^ 

As  the  patient  is  able  to  swallow,  administer  slowly  sips  of 
hot  coffee,  of  wine,  or  warm  brandy  and  water,  or  of  one 
part  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  to  five  of  water.  Keep  him 
quiet  and  warm  in  bed,  in  a  well- ventilated  room,  and  encour- 
age sleep.  Sometimes,  even  after  he  seems  on  the  road  to  re- 
covery, distressed  breathing  will  occur  from  a  secondary  con- 
gestion of  the  weakened  lungs,  brought  on  by  excitement  or 
moving  about  too  much.  Large  mustard  plasters  applied  to 
the  chest  will  help  to  relieve  this  condition.  In  conclusion,  all 
efforts  to  induce  breathing  and  promote  warmth  and  circulation 
in  suffocated  persons  should  be  persisted  in  for  at  least  one  hour. 
There  are  a  number  of  recorded  instances  in  which  life  has  been 
restored  after  more  than  an  hour's  work.- 

In  "Marshall  Hall's  Method,"  the  patient  is  placed  face  downwards,  and 
gentle  pressure  exerted  upon  the  hack  (to  expel  foul  air  from  the  lungs),  then 
he  is  rolled  over  upon  the  side,  or  a  little  beyond,  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs. 

1  Eiforts  at  resuscitation  should  be  begun  wherever  the  patient  is  found. 
Lose  no  time  in  endeavoring  to  move  him.  After  he  does  breathe,  carry  him 
promptly  to  a  house  or  under  cover. 

2  How  long  a  person  may  be  immersed  in  water  and  be  resuscitated  is  not 
definitely  known,  and  depends  on  various  circumstances.  If  water  has  passed 
into  the  throat,  air  is  excluded,  and  suffocation  is  prompt.  So  also  if  the 
drowned  person  has  been  tossed  about  in  the  surf.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
drowning  person  is  able  to  control  respiration,  and  lift  his  head  occasionally 
above  the  surface,  life  will  be  prolonged,  and  the  chances  for  resuscitation  are 
increased.  Such  also  is  the  case  if  fainting  occurs,  as  respiration  and  the  heart's 
action  cease  through  the  action  of  the  nervous  system,  and  there  are  conse- 
quently no  respiratory  or  circulatory  efforts  demanding  air  for  the  purification 
of  the  blood.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  many  persons,  even  good  swimmers, 
are  drowned  by  reason  of  being  seized  with  cramps  or  spasmodic  contractions 
of  muscles  Avhich  cannot  be  controlled.  Persons  who  are  subject  to  cramps  or 
twitching  of  the  muscles,  or  who  are  debilitated,  should  not  venture  into  water 
beyond  their  depth. 


328  EMERGENCIES. 

These  respective  movements  are  alternately  used,  each  occupying  about  four 
seconds,  or  used  together,  occurring  fifteen  times  in  a  minute.  The  "  Michigan 
Method  "  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  used  by  one  operator  (the  tongue  of 
the  patient  not  being  held),  and  is  of  value  if  the  person  operated  upon  can  be 
readily  lifted  by  the  operator.    It  is  as  follows:  — 

Instantly  loosen  or  cut  apart  all  neck  and  waist  bands.  Place  the  patient 
on  his  face.  Bestride  the  body,  with  your  face  towards  his  head.  Lock  your 
fingers  together  under  his  abdomen ,  raise  the  body  as  high  as  you  can  without 
lifting  the  forehead  off  the  ground,  give  it  a  smart  jerk  to  dislodge  water  and 
mucus  from  throat  and  windpipe.  Hold  the  body  suspended  long  enough  to 
count  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  repeating  the  jerk  more  gently  two  or  three 
times.  Then,  lower  the  body,  and  grasp  the  shoulders  by  the  clothing  or  by 
your  fingers  in  his  armpits,  and  raise  the  chest  as  high  as  you  can,  without  lift- 
ing the  head  quite  off  the  ground,  and  hold  it  there  long  enough  to  count  slowly 
one,  two,  three.  Replace  him  on  the  ground  with  his  forehead  on  his  flexed 
arm,  the  neck  straightened  out,  and  the  mouth  and  nose  free.  Place  your 
elbows  against  your  knees  (on  the  inner  side)  and  your  hands  upon  the  sides 
of  his  chest  over  the  lower  ribs,  and  press  downward  and  inward  with  increas- 
ing force,  long  enough  to  count  slowly  one,  two.  Then  suddenly  let  go;  grasp 
the  shoulders  as  before.  Repeat  the  above  movements  alternately  with  regu- 
larity ten  to  fifteen  times  a  minute  for  an  hour  at  least,  unless  breathing  is 
restored  sooner.  In  restoring  animal  heat,  warm  the  head  nearly  as  fast  as 
the  body,  lest  convulsions  come  on.  Before  natural  breathing  is  fully  restored, 
do  not  let  the  patient  lie  on  his  back  unless  some  person  holds  the  tongue  for- 
ward. The  tongue,  by  falling  back,  may  close  the  windpipe,  and  cause  fatal 
choking. 

"  Satterthwaite's  Method  "  is  as  follows  :  "  In  the  first  place,  you  must  try 
and  get  something  dry  and  warm  to  exchange  for  the  wet  clothing.  Send  at 
once  for  hot  water,  or  have  a  fire  built,  into  which  bits  of  metal  or  stones  may 
be  thrown  and  heated,  and  by  which  you  may  warm  blankets  or  the  bystanders' 
clothes,  which  are  to  be  applied  in  rapid  succession. 

"  Next,  try  and  get  rid  of  the  water  by  slightly  elevating  the  body,  while  the 
mouth  is  wedged  open  and  the  tongue  depressed.  To  do  this  effectively,  roll 
the  person  on  the  face,  raising  the  body,  lower  extremities,  and  feet  slightly; 
then  wedge  open  the  mouth  with  a  bit  of  wood,  a  knot  in  a  handkerchief,  etc. 
Then  place  the  left  forefinger  on  the  back  of  the  tongue  and  depress  it.  The 
finger  will  not  be  bitten,  because  the  mouth  is  so  wedged  open  that  the  teeth 
cannot  close.  This  opens  the  windpipe  better  than  if  the  tongue  is  merely 
drawn  out.  Then,  getting  beside  or  astride  of  the  person,  press  with  the  flat  of 
the  hand  upon  the  bowels,  pushing  them  upwards  at  the  same  time.  Very 
extreme  pressure  may  be  borne  in  this  way,  and  the  writer  can  say  from  per- 
sonal experience  that  he  has  never  seen  any  harm  come  from  it.  In  half  a 
minute,  probably  much  less,  the  water  will  be  driven  out  sufilciently  to  com- 
mence efforts  at  artificial  respiration.  Then  turn  the  person  over  on  the  back, 
with  the  head  still  a  little  lower  than  the  body,  keeping,  as  before,  the  wedge 
in  the  mouth,  the  same  finger  on  the  tongue,  and  make  upward  pressure  with 
the  right  hand  upon  the  bowels.  Press  the  right  hand  upwards  and  towards 
the  spine  until  you  hear  the  air  passing  out  through  the  mouth.    Commence 


EMERGENCIES.  329 

at  first  slowly,  and,  having  driven  out  the  air,  remove  the  hand,  that  the  air 
may  again  enter.  Then  make  the  upward  pressure  again,  trying  rather  to 
exhaust  the  air  thoroughly  than  to  do  it  rapidly.  At  first,  three  or  four  mo- 
tions in  a  minute  will  he  suflicient ;  then  gradually  increase  them  from  ten  to 
fifteen  a  minute,  and  persevere  at  this  rate  until  there  are  evidences  of  return- 
ing circulation,  that  is,  pulse,  or  it  is  plain  that  life  is  extinct." 

"Dr.  Howard's  Direct  Method  "  is  as  follows:  "  Unless  in  danger  of  freez- 
ing, never  move  the  patient  from  the  spot  where  first  rescued,  nor  allow  by- 
standers to  screen  off  the  fresh  air ;  but  instantly  wipe  clean  the  mouth  and 
nostrils,  rip  and  remove  all  clothing  to  a  little  below  the  waist,  rapidly  rub 
dry  the  exposed  part,  and  give  two  quick,  smarting  slaps  on  the  stomach  with 
the  open  hand.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  then  turn  him  on  his  face,  a  large 
bundle  of  tightly-rolled  clothing  being  placed  beneath  the  stomach.  Press 
heavily  upon  the  spine,  over  the  region  of  the  stomach,  for  half  a  minute,  then 
turn  the  patient  quickly  on  his  back,  placing  the  roll  of  clothing  under  the 
back,  so  that  the  short  ribs  bulge  prominently  forward  and  are  raised  a  little 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  mouth.  Have  the  tip  of  the  tongue  held  out  of  a 
corner  of  the  mouth  by  a  handkerchief  in  the  hand  of  a  bystander,  and  the 
arms  stretched  forcibly  back  above  the  head.  Then  kneel  astride  or  beside 
the  patient's  hips,  with  your  hands  resting  on  the  stomach;  spread  out  the 
fingers  so  that  you  can  grasp  the  waist  about  the  short  ribs.  Throw  all  your 
weight  steadily  forward  upon  your  hands,  squeezing  the  ribs  at  the  same  time 
as  if  you  wished  to  force  everything  in  the  chest  upward  out  of  the  mouth. 
Continue  this  movement  while  you  slowly  count  one,  two,  three,  then  sud- 
denly let  go  with  a  final  push,  which  springs  you  back  to  your  first  kneeling 
position.  Remain  erect  upon  your  knees  while  you  count  one,  two,  then 
throw  your  weight  upward  as  before.  Repeat  these  entire  motions  with  regu- 
larity; at  first,  about  four  or  five  times  a  minute,  gradually  increasing  the 
rate  to  about  fifteen  times  a  minute.  Continue  the  treatment  for  at  least  two 
hours,  if  not  successful  before,  meanwhile  applying  friction  to  the  limbs;  and 
even  after  he  has  begun  to  breathe  assist  him  by  well-timed  pressure  to  deepen 
his  first  gasps  into  full  deep  breaths." 

/nf ox/cat/on.  — Symptoms:  Breath  has  the  odor  of  liquor, * 
inseiisibilit}'  more  or  less  complete,  usuallj'  can  be  roused, 
breathing  quiet,  pulse  frequent,  pupils  slowly  respond  to  light. 
Treatment:  Emetics, ^  cold  douches,  slapping  of  the  face  or 
other  sensitive  parts  of  the  body. 

1  It  has  often  happened  that  a  perfectly  temperate  person,  feeling  faint  or 
exhausted,  has  taken  some  alcoholic  stimulant,  which,  being  perceptible  in 
the  breath,  has,  upon  the  supervention  of  a  serious  accident,  led  the  bystanders 
to  conclude  that  he  was  intoxicated.  We  should  always  be  on  our  guard 
against  such  a  mistake,  for  it  not  only  causes  an  utter  neglect  of  sucli  meas- 
ures as  are  necessary  to  recc^ery,  but  leads  to  great  injustice  and  mortification. 

2  For  emetics,  see  p.  343. 


330  EMERGENCIES. 

Apoplexy.  —  Symptoms :  Patient  generally  insensible,  face 
flushed  or  very  pale,  pulse  full,  pupils  do  not  respond  to  the 
light,  breathing  is  more  or  less  noisy,  paralysis  of  face  or  one 
or  more  of  the  limbs,  sometimes  convulsions.  Treatment:  Rest 
in  recumbent  position,  loosen  the  clothing  about  the  head,  neck, 
and  chest.  If  head  hot,  apply  cold.  Keep  patient  quiet.  Other 
means  leave  to  the  doctor. 

Convulsions  or  Fits.  —  Do  not  attempt  to  hold  the  patient 
still.  Merely  prevent  him  from  injuring  himself.  If  there  is 
danger  of  the  tongue  being  bitten,  place  a  piece  of  wood  (head 
of  a  clothes-pin,  for  example)  between  the  teeth.  In  the  or- 
dinary convulsions  of  children,  from  undigested  food,  etc.,  and 
in  convulsions  from  blood  poison,  place  the  patient  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  warm  bath.  If  the.  head  is  hot,  keep  cool  water 
applied  to  it  during  and  after  the  bath.  In  the  convulsions  of 
epilepsy,  baths  are  not  to  be  used ;  quiet  is  the  chief  require- 
ment. 

Fainting  Fits  (syncope) .  —  Danger  at  times  from  feeble 
heart.  Remove  patient  instantly  from  a  crowd ;  place  in  a 
recumbent  posture.  Life  may  be  lost  by  keeping  a  fainting 
person  in  an  erect  posture. 

Sunstroke  and  Heat  Exhaustion  are  two  conditions  entirely 
different,  but  caused  by  fatigue  and  prolonged  exposure  to 
great  heat  either  by  day  or  night.  They  are  most  likely  to 
occur  in  feeble  and  intemperate  persons,  among  those  who 
work  under  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or  in  badly-ventilated 
and  overheated  kitchens,  laundries,  and  workshops,  or  who 
wear  in  hot  weather  too  much  clothing,  especially  heav}^  head- 
coverings,  and  who  drink  to  excess  of  iced  drinks. 

In  sunstroke,  the  skin  is  hot,  pulse  full,  and  breathing  la- 
bored, and  the  patient  may  be  unconscious.  There  is  danger 
from  the  congestion  which  occurs  in  the  internal  organs. 
Treatment:  Recumbent  posture  in  a  cool  place,  ice  to  the  head, 
and   cold   douches   upon  the  face,  neck,  chest,  and  spine,  at- 


EMERGENCIES.  331 

tended  with  friction  until  consciousness  returns.  Stimulants 
are  indicated  if  the  pulse  is  very  weak,  and  if  reaction  does  not 
soon  set  in,  mustard  (but  not  to  blister)  may  be  applied  to  the 
feet  and  back  of  the  neck  and  to  the  chest.  When  there  is 
apparently  no  active  congestion,  but  evidences  of  heat  exhaus- 
tion, stimulants  are  to  be  used  from  the  first,  and  cold  applica- 
tions sparingly,  if  at  all.  It  may  be  necessary  to  induce 
warmth. 

Burns  and  Scalds.  — Burns  are  caused  by  the  contact  of  the 
bod}'  with  fire,  heated  substances,  or  chemical  agents.  Scalds, 
by  the  contact  with  steam  or  boiling  liquids.  The  danger  in 
either  case  is  from  shock,  and  from  inflammation  of  internal 
organs,  and  is  increased  generally  in  proportion  to  the  nearness 
to  the  vital  organs,  the  amount  of  surface  injured,  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  sub-lying  tissues.  Cases  are  on  record  of  lock- 
jaw and  other  serious  troubles  following  what  are  considered 
slight  burns.  If  you  see  a  person  on  fire,  act  promptly.  Pick 
up  the  nearest  rug,  shawl,  table-cover,  overcoat,  or  slip  of 
carpet,  or,  if  necessary,  tear  down  a  curtain.  Hold  it  before 
yourself  to  protect  you  as  you  proceed  to  wrap  it  around  the 
burning  part,  keeping  the  flames  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
face  of  the  sufferer,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  overheated 
air  into  the  lungs.  If  necessary  (without  parleying),  throw  the 
burning  person  to  the  ground  and  roll  him  over  and  over  in  the 
blankets,  carpets,  or  other  woollen  material,  at  the  same  time 
that  an  assistant  drenches  with  water  the  cinders  and' half - 
burnt  clothing.  1 

Treatynent  of  Burns  and  Scalds:  1.  Remove,  by  cutting  with 
scissors,  all  the  clothing  you  can  about  the  injured  parts,  being 
careful  not  to  tear  blisters  open.  Soften  by  water  all  adher- 
ent pieces  of  clothing.  Cover  the  burned  or  scalded  places 
with  strips  of  soft  linen  or  cotton  cloth  (not  with  cotton  bat- 

1  Kindling  fires  with  kerosene  oil,  filling  lamps  when  they  are  lighted,  let- 
ting lighted  lamps  fall,  running  or  moving  quickly  while  one's  clothes  are  on 
fire,  working  about  open  fires  in  loose  cotton  dresses,  are  all  sources  of  danger. 


332  EMERGENCIES. 

ting,  for  it  adheres  too  closely,  and  is  too  heating)  saturated 
in  a  mixture  of  carbolic  acid  or  creasote  with  glycerine  and 
olive  oil,  one  teaspoonful  of  the  first  or  the  second  ingredient 
mixed  with  the  same  amount  of  gl3'cerine,  and  then  well 
shaken  together  with  one  pint  of  oil,^  or  saturated  in  car- 
bolized  vaseline,  or  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  oil  and 
lime-water,  or  a  strong  solution  of  bi-carbonate  of  soda.  Or, 
the  spots  may  be  covered  with  chalk,  soap,  cream,  or  any  sub- 
stance that  will  exclude  the  air.  When  blisters  form,  their  con- 
tents may  be  removed  by  slight  punctures  of  a  sharp  needle. 
2.  In  severe  cases,  there  is  more  or  less  shock,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  suspend  local  measures,  and  revive  the  patient  by 
stimulants,  as  before  directed  in  cases  of  shock.  3.  Do  not  re- 
move the  dressings  unless  cleanliness  demands  it.  When  3'ou 
do,  use  great  gentleness,  that  you  may  not  injure  newly-formed 
skin.  Oily  dressings  should,  from  time  to  time,  have  fresh  oil 
applied  over  them,  and  it  is  well  to  spra}-  liquid  dressings  with 
a  mixture  of  carbolic  acid,  one  teaspoonful  to  eight  ounces 
of  water.  4.  Troublesome,  contracting  scars  sometimes  follow 
burns,  producing  deformities.  Especially  is  this  the  case  at 
the  bend  of  a  joint,  or  where  the  skin  is  loose,  as  about  the  eyes, 
mouth,  and  neck.  In  short,  there  is  great  responsibility  in- 
volved in  the  care  of  burns  and  scalds,  and  no  person  should 
attempt  their  continued  treatment  unless  he  is  thoroughly  versed 
in  antiseptic  surgery. 

Frost  B He. — This  results  from  exposure  to  severe  cold. 
The  vitality  of  the  part  is  reduced  to  a  low  point,  and  becomes 
bluish  or  white.  Sometimes  exposure  to  cold  winds  gradually 
produces  a  congestion  of  internal  organs,  and  a  tendency  to 
sleep  ;  and,  if  the  person  indulges  in  it,  in  the  open  air  espe- 
cially, death  may  result.^     To  bring  about  reaction,  place  the 

1  This  mixture  is  much  cleaner  than  many  of  the  burn  mixtures,  and  quiets 
pain.  It  should  be  kept  on  hand  in  houses  and  factories.  In  case  olive  oil 
cannot  be  obtained,  other  oils  will  answer.  Strips  of  cloth  are  to  be  preferred 
to  large  pieces,  as  they  can  be  more  readily  removed. 

2  If  caught  in  a  snow-storm,  do  not  suffer  yourself  to  be  overcome  with 
sleep  until  you  have  found  a  spot  of  some  sort  sheltered  from  the  wind. 


EMERGENCIES.  333 

person  in  a  room  without  fire,  and  gradually  rub  the  chilled  or 
frozen  parts  with  ice,  snow,  or  cold  water.  Stimulants  ma}'  be 
necessary.  When  the  parts  begin  to  redden  and  sting,  or  be- 
come painful,  reaction  has  commenced  and  care  is  necessary  (b}' 
rest,  sleep,  and  gradually  increasing  warmth)  lest  the  returning 
circulation  in  the  skin  become  too  active,  so  as  to  cause  in- 
flammation. 

Fractures  and  Dislocations.  —  The  signs  of  a  fractured  or 
broken  bone  are  generally  more  or  less  change  in  the  shape  and 
natural  appearance  of  the  injured  part,  pain  and  inability  to 
move  the  part  readily,  tenderness  and  unnatural  mobility  at 
the  point  of  injury,  and  a  grating  sound  when  the  fragments  of 
bone  are  gently  rubbed  against  each  other.  The  symptoms  of 
dislocation,  or  "  bones  out  of  joint,"  are  in  general  the  opposite 
to  those  of  a  fracture.  There  is  ordinarily  marked  deformity 
and  impaired  motion.  Treatment :  There  is  generally  but  little 
urgency  in  the  treatment  of  a  broken  limb.  The  common  im- 
pression that  a  broken  bone  must  be  immediately  set  is  erro- 
neous, and  tends  to  induce  much  handling  of  the  injured  parts, 
which  is  alwa3's  dangerous,  as  jagged  ends  of  bones  may  be 
made  to  injure  the  soft  tissues.  Put  the  patient  in  as  comforta- 
ble position  as  possible,  pending  the  arrival  of  the  surgeon. 
Support  the  affected  part  by  pillows,  blankets,  shawls,  or  coats, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  painful  twitchings  of  the  injured  muscles, 
and  to  preserve,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  natural  shape  of  the 
part.  In  case  of  fracture  of  the  collar  bone,  place  the  forearm 
gently  in  a  sling,  improvised  from  a  long  towel,  or  a  shawl,  or  a 
piece  of  cloth,  with  a  soft  pad  in  the  armpit  of  the  affected 
side,  and  let  the  patient  lie  on  his  back,  with  a  small  pillow 
between  the  shoulders.  In  case  of  removal  of  the  patient, 
steady  the  affected  arm  by  a  bandage  over  it  and  around  the 
body.  A  broken  arm  is  made  most  comfortable  by  placing  it 
in  a  semi-flexed  position  upon  a  pillow ;  a  broken  leg,  by  gentl}' 
extending  it  to  its  full  length  and  supporting  it  by  pads  on 
both  sides.  With  a  broken  knee  cap,  the  leg  should  be  elevated 
on  an  inclined  plane,  with  a  figure-of-8   bandage   about  the 


334  EMEJIGENCIES. 

knee.  If  one  or  more  of  the  ribs  are  broken,  apply  a  bandage 
firml}'  around  the  chest  to  prevent  motion  as  far  as  possible. 
When  a  jaw  bone  is  broken,  hold  the  parts  in  proper  place  by  a 
bandage  about  the  head.  When  the  patient  is  to  be  removed, 
more  support  to  the  fragments  is  necessary,  by  the  binding  on 
of  "  splints,"  that  is,  softly-padded  shingles,  pieces  of  leather, 
sticks,  or  anything  that  can  serve  to  hold  these  fragments  quiet 
and,  nearly  as  possible,  in  line. 

The  setting  of  a  bone  should  be  accomplished  by  a  surgeon. 
When  once  the  fragments  are  adjusted,  they  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed.' 

In  a  case  of  dislocation,  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  bystanders 
merely  to  make  the  sufferer  comfortable,  and  to  convey  him 
carefully  to  a  place  where  a  surgeon  can  be  obtained.  The  re- 
duction of  a  dislocation  is  oftentimes  more  difficult  than  the 
setting  of  a  bone,  and  it  should  never  be  attempted  by  a  layman 
if  a  surgeon  can  be  obtained. 

Sprains  are  bruised  or  torn  ligaments,  cartilages,  muscles, 
and  nerves  about  the  joints,  and  are  serious  injuries.  After 
such  an  injury,  though  apparently  slight,  rest  is  necessary^  and 
this  may  be  temporarily  obtained  by  firmly,  but  gently,  wrap- 
ping the  part  in  cloths  or  bandages  dipped  in  hot  or  cold  water, 
as  the  feelings  of  the  person  may  indicate  and  the  surroundings 
admit  of.     The  surgeon  may  ultimatelj-  apply  a  -proper  splint.^ 

1  The  process  of  repair  in  broken  bones  is  similar  to  that  witnessed  in  the 
healing  of  wounds  of  the  soft  parts.  New,  delicate  material  is  abundantly- 
deposited  between  and  about  the  ends  of  the  broken  pieces.  This  gradually 
hardens  to  the  consistency  of  bone,  in  the  meantime  decreasing  in  size,  so 
that,  if  the  fragments  have  been  kept  well  in  place,  very  little  deformity 
results.  The  best  surgeons  are  at  times  unable  to  prevent  deformities,  owing 
to  their  inability  in  certain  instances  to  secure  the  proper  apposition  and  reten- 
tion of  the  broken  parts.  An  unprofessional  person  should  not  attempt  to  set 
a  broken  bone  if  a  surgeon  can  possibly  be  procured.  Movements  of  the  body 
or  limbs,  though  carefully  made,  may  cause  the  sharp  edges  of  bone  to  cut  into 
important  structures,  blood-vessels,  nerves,  etc.  Fatal  injuries  may,  in  this 
way,  result. 

2  So  serious  oftentimes  is  the  injury  to  the  ligaments,  muscles,  and  other 
tissues  about  a  joint,  that  sprains  have  been  spoken  of  as  "  broken  joints." 


EMERGENCIES.  335 

Contusions  or  Bruises  result  from  falls,  blows,  or  pressure, 
and,  if  severe,  are  attended  by  shock,  broken  blood-vessels, 
and  crushed  muscles  and  other  tissues.  The  black  and  blue 
spots,  which  result  from  the  oozing  of  blood  from  the  blood- 
vessels, and  which  disappear  after  a  few  hours  or  days,  are 
generally  the  largest  where  the  tissues  are  the  loosest,  such  as 
the  connective  tissue  under  the  skin  of  the  scalp  and  eyelids. 
The  treatment  of  contusions  is  rest,  relief  from  shock,  the  ele- 
vation of  the  bruised  part,  so  as  to  retard  the  flow  of  blood  into 
it,  and  the  application  of  cold  by  water  or  powdered  ice  in 
towels  or  rubber  bags.i  The  wet  towels  must  not  be  kept  on 
long  enough  to  act  by  their  warmth  as  poultices,  or  to  soak  the 
individual's  clothing. 

Wounds  are  generally  classified  as  follows  :  — 

Incised  Wounds,  i.e.,  cuts  or  incisions  of  various  depths, 
made  generally  b}^  sharp  instruments,  such  as  knives. 

Punctured  Wounds,  such  as  stabs,  and  pricks  made  by 
splinters,  thorns,  needles,  etc. 

Poisoned  Wounds,  from  the  bites  of  snakes,  spiders,  rabid 
dogs,  etc.  If  the  wounded  part  is  very  much  bruised,  the 
wound  is  called  a  contused  wound.  If  the  skin  and  tissues 
beneath  are  much  torn,  it  is  a  lacerated  wound. 

Wounds  may  be  attended  b}'  more  or  less  hemorrhage,  by 
pain,  and  by  the  presence  of  dead  or  foreign  matter,  viz.,  fibres 
of  cloth,  dirt,  and  coagulated  blood. 

Treatment :  Ascertain  the  source  and  amount  of  the  bleeding, 
and  do  not  be  alarmed  by  the  amount  of  the  clothing  stained^  for 
a  small  amount  of  blood  will  oftentimes  make  a  large  stain,  and 
yet  the  source  of  the  bleeding  may  frequently  be  controlled 
with  ease.^     When  the  wound  is  located,  the  kind  of  hemor- 

1  Sixty  drops  of  tincture  of  arnica,  or  extract  of  witch-hazel,  may  be  added 
to  half  a  pint  of  water.  Water  dressings,  if  continued  too  long,  lower  the 
vitality  of  the  part. 

2  A  surgeon  relates  the  following:  "Was  called  one  night  to  see  a  woman 
reported  to  be  bleeding  to  death.  Found  her  in  a  close  room,  sitting  in  a  chair, 
with  blood-stained  carpet  about  her,  and,  wrapped  around  one  of  her  legs,  a 
sheet  soaked  in  blood.   Tearing  this  off,  I  found  a  little  stream  of  blood  trickling 


336  EMERGENCIES. 

rhage  will  be  apparent.  If  a  large  arter}^  has  been  cut  across, 
the  blood  spirts.  The  wound  being  found,  if  the  blood  has 
ceased  to  flow,  from  the  spontaneous  coagulation  of  blood,  it 
may  be  wise  not  to  disturb  the  condition  of  things,  if  there  has 
been  much  shock,  until  removal  to  a  better  location ;  but  re- 
member that  in  the  removal,  if  the  person  is  jarred  much,  bleed- 
ing may  recur,  and  will  need  to  be  checked.  To  stop  external 
bleeding,  pressure  is  of  the  first  importance^  then  applications  of 
ice,  cold  water,  tannin,  or  alum.  If  the  bleeding  is  compara- 
tively slight,  or  occurs  in  places  where  the  bones  beneath  are 
near  the  surface,  as  in  the  scalp  and  face,  pressure  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  wound  by  the  fingers,  or  by  a  pad  held  firmly  in 
place  by  a  bandage.  If  severe,  and  especially  if  arterial  in 
character,  i.e.,  coming  in  jets  of  a  bright  red  color,  pressure 
must  be  made  between  the  wound  and  heart,  a  pad  being  bound 
over  the  main  artery  ;  or,  in  the  case  of  a  limb,  it  should  be 
elevated,  and  the  artery  should  be  pressed  upon  by  a  knot  in  a 
handkerchief,  towel,  suspender,  or  piece  of  cloth,  tied  about 
the  limb,  the  knot  over  the  blood-vessel,  and  then  twisted  b}' 
means  of  a  stick  until  the  bleeding  ceases. ^  When  this  is  con- 
trolled, the  wound  should  be  quickly  washed  with  cold  water, 
and  the  foreign  matter  carefully  removed,  and  any  organs  which 
have  protruded  replaced.  Then  dry  it  gently,  and,  if  the  wound 
is  an  incised  one,  bring  its  edges  together  by  strips  of  surgeons' 
adhesive  plaster,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  from  one-half  to 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  apart,  by  rubber  plaster,  or  by  the  thin 
isinglass  plaster,  if  it  can  be  kept  dry.  Never  cover  the  entire 
wound  with  plaster,  as  some  exit  must  be  allowed  for  any  ooz- 
ing that  may  occur. 

from  a  small  opening  in  a  broken  vein  between  the  knee  and  the  ankle.  Pres- 
sure with  the  finger  readily  controlled  the  bleeding  for  the  time,  and  a  properly- 
applied  bandage  accomplished  the  end  afterwards.  Much  anxiety,  loss  of 
blood,  and  injury  to  carpet,  might  have  been  saved  by  a  little  coolness  and 
knowledge." 

1  The  main  artery  of  the  arm  runs  along  the  inner  edge  of  the  prominent 
muscle,  which  stands  out  when  the  arm  is  strongly  bent;  of  the  thigh,  along 
its  inner  middle  line.  These  arteries,  and  other  principal  ones,  are  outlined 
in  Fig.  47. 


EMERGENCIES.  337 

The  tourniquet  may  now  be  removed,  if  the  proceeding  be 
not  attended  with  renewed  bleeding,  and  a  graduated  pad  and 
bandage  applied,  to  assist  in  keeping  the  strips  in  position  and 
to  prevent  secondary  bleeding. 

If  the  wound  is  jagged  and  torn,  the  edges  cannot  be  brought 
together.  Replace  the  parts  as  near  as  possible  in  their  normal 
position,  and,  if  there  is  a  tendency  to  bleeding,  apply  cloths 
wet  with  cold  water.  If  there  is  no  such  tendency,  hot  appli- 
cations (poultices  and  water  dressings)  may  be  applied  at  the 
outset. 

Punctured  Wounds,  on  account  of  the  bruising  which  gener- 
ally accompanies  them,  the  injury  to  the  deeper  tissues,  and 
sometimes  the  character  of  the  sources  of  injury,  — rust}'  nails, 
pieces  of  shell,  needles,  splinters  of  wood,  etc.,  —  are  generally 
considered  the  most  dangerous,  and  if  in  the  sole  of  the  foot,  or 
palm  of  the  hand,  may  give  rise  to  lockjaw,  and  are  frequently 
followed  by  erysipelas  and  other  forms  of  inflammation  ;  whereas, 
the  principal  danger  from  an  incised  wound  is  hemorrhage. 

Treatment:  If  the  sources  of  the  injury  are  still  in  the  wound, 
remove  them.  Thorns,  needles,  splinters,  etc.,  should  not  be 
left  in  the  bod}'  under  the  idea  that  they  ' '  will  work  their  way 
out."  Poking  at  them,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  splinters, 
adds  to  the  irritation  already  set  up.  If  a  splinter  is  under  the 
finger  or  toe  nail,  and  cannot  be  pulled  out,  scrape  the  nail  thin 
over  the  splinter  until  it  can  be  easily  cut  and  the  splinter 
seized,  or  make  an  incision  on  each  side  of  the  foreign  body 
and  remove  the  tongue  of  nail  between.  The  skin  and  tissues 
of  the  palm  and  the  sole  are  so  firm  and  dense  that  imprisoned 
matters  cannot  easily  find  exit,  and  lockjaw  is  liable  to  result. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  that  an  incision  should  be  made  over 
the  foreign  substances,  so  as  to  reach  it  easily  and  allow  a  free 
exit  for  blood,  etc.  The  removal  of  needles  had  better  not  be 
attempted  by  others  than  surgeons,  unless  they  are  near  the 
surface,  as  they  readily  slip,  on  being  touched,  between  the 
fibres  of  muscles  and  connective  tissues.  If  there  is  a  tendency 
to  such  slipping,  or  the  needle  seems  deeply  buried,  hold  the 
part  still  till  the  surgeon  comes. 


338  emi:kgencies. 

When  a  fish-hook  enters  a  part,  and  does  not  go  through, 
push  the  point  through  if  possible,  and  then  cut  the  barb  off 
and  withdraw  the  remnant.  If  it  cannot  be  pushed  through,  it 
is  best  to  cut  down  upon  it  and  so  remove  it.  In  these  wounds, 
carbolized  water  dressings,  one  drachm  (i.e.,  about  a  teaspoon- 
f  ul)  to  ten  ounces  of  water,  are  best.  Pain  ma^-  be  reUeved  by 
the  addition  of  laudanum,  one-half  ounce  {i.e.,  about  one  table- 
spoonful)  to  pint  of  water. 

Poisoned  Wounds,  which  remain  for  consideration,  will  be 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  poisons. 

Special  Hemorrhages.  —  Of  these,  the  most  common  and 
the  least  dangerous  is  bleeding  from  the  nose.  It  results  from 
falls,  blows,  or  disease,  or  it  is  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve 
some  internal  congestion,  and  is  often  preceded  by  a  feeling  of 
weight,  pain,  and  fulness  about  the  forehead.  Treatment:  As- 
certain if  the  blood  escapes  from  one  or  both  nostrils,  then 
raise  the  arm  of  the  affected  side  above  the  head,  compress  the 
nostrils,  and  apply  cold  to  the  forehead  or  back  of  the  neck. 
Frequently  it  is  sufficient  if  one  remains  quietly  in  a  sitting- 
posture.  If  the  bleeding  continues,  and  the  person  is  faint, 
inject  into  the  affected  nostril  a  syringeful  of  ice-water  or  solu- 
tion of  common  salt  {i.e.,  one  teaspoonful  to  large  wineglass 
of  water),  or  a  dilute  solution  of  alum,  or  blow  in  some  tannin. 
The  nostrils  may  be  plugged  by  cotton  dipped  in  one  of  the 
above  solutions.  If  blood  still  forces  itself  into  the  throat,  and 
so  out  of  the  mouth,  a  surgeon  must  be  seen.  In  all  forms  of 
hemorrhage,  the  patient  must  be  kept  in  a  cool  room  and  quiet, 
and  when  faint  from  severe  bleeding,  in  a  recumbent  posture, 
with  the  head  lower  than  the  body.  Bleeding  from  the  mouth 
is  generally  relieved  by  pressure  and  by  one  of  the  above  styp- 
tics. Bleeding  from  the  stomach  is  generally  attended  by 
dark  blood  mingled  with  food.  From  the  lungs,  the  blood 
is  bright  red  and  frothy,  mixed  with  bubbles  of  air,  and  is 
generally  accompanied  with  a  cough.  For  relief,  quiet  and  re- 
cumbent posture,  ice  and  styptics  internally  in  small  quantities, 
so  as  not  to  induce  vomiting ;  cold  ma^-  be  applied  over  the 


EMERGENCIES.  339 

region  of  the  stomach.  Bleeding  from  the  gum,  after  the  ex- 
traction of  a  tooth,  is  sometimes  alarming,  but  continued  pres- 
sure in  the  socket  with  the  tip  of  the  finger,  or  a  piece  of 
sponge,  or  a  plug  of  wood  supported  by  the  jaws,  which  are 
held  together  by  a  tight  bandage  about  the  head,  is  ordinarily 
sufficient.  When  pressure,  cold,  and  ordinary  styptics,  will 
not  control  hemorrhage,  touching  the  bleeding  spot  with  a  red- 
hot  knitting-needle  is  of  service. 

Foreign  Bodies.  — Pieces  of  chicken-bone  or  fish-bone,  meat, 
or  other  food,  pins,  false  teeth,  etc.,  sometimes  lodge  in  the 
larynx,  causing  great  difficulty  in  swallowing  and  breathing, 
and  give  rise  to  the  feeling  and  danger  of  suffocation.  Treat- 
ment :  A  sharp  blow  upon  the  back,  if  given  immediately  after 
the  accident  has  occurred,  will  sometimes  assist  the  patient  to 
eject  the  foreign  body.  If  it  fails,  invert  the  patient,  and 
move  him  from  side  to  side,  while  some  one  strikes  the  person 
between  the  shoulders  with  the  open  hand.  If  this  fails,  and 
the  foreign  body  cannot  be  dislodged  by  the  finger  introduced 
into  the  mouth,  or  by  long,  curved  forceps,  the  surgeon  is 
needed. 

Little  children  in  play  sometimes  put  peas,  beans,  shoe- 
buttons,  pins,  etc.,  into  the  nose  or  ears.  Insects  also  enter 
these  places.  Foreign  bodies  in  the  ear,  if  not  removed,  may 
create  inflammation,  which  may  extend  through  the  drum  mem- 
brane to  the  brain.  Small  bodies  may  be  removed  by  syring- 
ing with  tepid  water,  the  nozzle  of  the  sj'ringe  being  placed 
against  the  upper  wall  of  the  ear  canal.  Larger  bodies  may  be 
gently  scooped  out  by  a  bent  probe,  or  the  rounded  end  of  a 
hair-pin,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  drum  membrane. 
Insects  may  be  washed  out  after  being  smothered  with  salt 
water,  oil,  or  by  the  vapor  of  vinegar  from  a  saturated  piece  of 
cotton  wool  placed  in  the  external  opening.  If  the  foreign 
body  is  up  the  nostril,  close  the  unaffected  nostril,  take  a  full 
breath  through  the  mouth,  and  then  breathe  out  suddenly  and 
forcibly  through   the   affected  nostril.      Sometimes   snuff  will 


340  EMERGENCIES. 

cause  enough  sneezing  to  dislodge  it.     If  the  breathing  in  is 
too  forcible^  the  body  ma}'  be  carried  high  up. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  eye,  such  as  sand,  broken  eyelashes, 
cinders,  and  pieces  of  metal,  if  not  removed  promptly,  cause 
serious  inflammation.  Never  rub  the  eye  to  dislodge  particles. 
If  on  the  front  of  the  eyeball,  gently  remove  with  a  piece  of 
wet  cotton  wrapped  around  a  ver}'  small,  smooth  piece  of  wood, 
or  with  a  moist  camel's-hair  brush  ;  or,  if  it  is  a  metallic  sub- 
stance, try  a  magnet.  Sometimes  it  is  diflEicult  to  see  a  minute 
particle  unless  a  bright  light  falls  directl}-  upon  the  eje.  The 
best  position  for  the  operator  is  to  stand  behind  the  chair  of 
the  patient,  or  a  little  to  one  side,  steady  the  affected  eye,  and 
keep  the  lids  open  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand.  A  mag- 
nifying glass  is  of  service  in  detecting  whether  a  supposed  par- 
ticle is  one  in  reality  or  merely  a  stain  from  a  piece  of  metal  or 
a  natural  discoloration.  Eyestones  are  sometimes  used  to  dis- 
lodge particles  from  under  the  eyelids,  but  it  is  much  better  for 
the  patient  to  take  hold  of  the  lashes  of  the  upper  lid,  raise  it 
from  the  eyeball,  and  then  move  it  forcibly  over  the  lower  lid 
towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye ;  or,  the  assistant,  sitting 
in  front  of  the  patient,  turns  the  upper  lid  gently  backwards, 
and  over  a  lead-pencil,  penholder,  or  firm  tooth-pick.  The 
lower  lid  can,  in  general,  be  readily  everted.  The  inflamed  con- 
dition of  the  eye,  left  after  a  foreign  body  has  been  in  or  upon 
it,  is  generally  relieved  by  a  drop  of  olive  oil  or  castor  oil  upon 
the  eye,  or  b}^  a  gentle  sopping  with  warm  water,  or  with  borax 
and  camphor  water  (ten  grains  to  the  ounce),  putting  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  this  mixture  in  a  tablespoonful  of  warm  water. 
Poultices  or  patented  eye-washes  should  not  be  used.  In  case 
lime  has  got  into  the  eye,  bathe  the  eye  with  a  weak  solution  of 
vinegar  and  water. 

POISONS. 

A  poison  may  be  defined  to  be  "any  substance  which, 
when  introduced  into  the  system,  or  applied  externally  injures 
health,  or  destroys   life  irrespective  of   mechanical  means,  or 


EMERGENCIES.  341 

direct  thermal  changes."^  Its  action  may  be  :  1.  Local,  produc- 
ing pain  and  soreness  in  the  mouth,  stomach,  lungs,  or  bowels, 
associated  it  may  be  with  vomiting,  and  difficult  breathing  and 
swallowing,  due  to  injury  to  the  throat  and  windpipe ;  or  the 
poison  may  eat  or  destroy  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact,  but  does  not  as  a  rule  suspend  consciousness.  2.  The 
poison  may  act  remotely,  i.e.,  through  the  blood  and  nervous 
system,  and  produce  delirium,  excitement,  convulsions,  stupor, 
or  marked  prostration.  3.  It  may  act  both  locally  and  remotely. 
Those  poisons  whose  action  is  chiefly  local  are  the  irritant,  and 
the  acrid,  escharotic,  or  corrosive  poisons.  The  first  group  in- 
cludes some  of  the  metallic  poisons,  such  as  copper  and  mer- 
cury-, and  some  irritating  gases,  and  also  certain  vegetable, 
animal,  and  mineral  substances,  such  as  tansy,  poke-berries, 
cantharides,  deca3'ed  meat,  and  poisonous  fish.  The  second 
group  comprises  the  strong  acids,  such  as  sulphuric,  nitric,  mu- 
riatic, and  oxalic ;  alkalies,  such  as  potash  and  ammonia,  acid 
and  alkaline  salts,  corrosive  sublimate,  etc. 

Those  poisons  which  act  ' '  remotely  ' '  are  termed  narcotic  or 
neurotic  poisons,  and  include  such  substances  as  opium,  chloral 
hydrate,  alcohol,  belladonna,  aconite,  etc.  Those  poisons 
which  produce  both  local  and  remote  effects  are  the  acro-narcotic 
poisons,  pink-root,  ergot,  lobelia,  etc.,  and  the  septic  poisons 
in  venomous  bites  and  stings  and  virulent  wounds.  Usually 
we  suspect  poisoning  if  a  person  is  taken  suddenly  and  violently 
ill,  especially  if  there  is  great  pain  and  repeated  or  severe 
retching  or  vomiting,  and  it  is  known  that  food  or  drink  has 

1  The  above  definition,  from  Quain's  Dictionary  of  Medicine,  seems  to  be 
the  best.  There  is  no  legal  definition  of  a  poison.  A  popular  idea  is  that  a 
poison  is  a  substance  which,  taken  in  small  amount,  will  destroy  life.  The 
fact  is,  there  are  varying  degrees  of  susceptibility  to  the  action  of  a  poisonous 
substance,  and  by  the  habitual  use  of  a  substance  large  doses  may  often  be  taken 
with  impunity.  There  are  some  i^ersons,  on  the  contrary,  who  are  so  suscep- 
tible that  they  cannot  take,  for  example,  even  the  most  minute  dose  of  calomel 
without  a  resulting  sore  mouth,  or  of  belladonna,  without  its  producing  a  dry 
throat  and  dilated  pupils.  Of  the  lower  animals,  hogs,  it  is  said,  can  eat  hen- 
bane with  impunity;  pheasants,  stramonium;  goats,  tobacco  and  water  hem- 
lock. 


342  EMERGENCIES. 

been  recently  taken. ^  It  sometimes  happens  that  severe  colic 
from  undigested  food,  an  attack  of  cholera  morbus,  the  pain 
and  distress  referable  to  heart  disease,  the  stupor  due  to  an 
apoplexy,  are  mistaken  by  the  ignorant  for  the  symptoms  of 
poisoning,  and  the  patient  is  roughly  and  wrongly  dealt  with. 
To  ascertain,  carefully  examine  the  mouth,  lips,  and  breath  ; 
search  the  clothing  and  the  room  in  which  the  poison  is  sup- 
posed to  be. 2  A  person  who  has  taken  poison  with  intent  to 
kill  is  likely  to  prevaricate  and  destroy  the  evidence  of  the 
poison  used. 

Spasms,  with  more  or  less  unconsciousness,  will  lead  you  to 
suspect  strychnine ;  quiet,  deep  sleep,  from  which  a  person  is 
not  readily  aroused,  and  strongly  contracted  pupils,  indicate 
opium  ;  stupor,  with  salivation,  —  mercury  ;  inflammation  of  the 
mouth,  severe  pain,  retching,  and  vomiting,  —  arsenic  or  other 
corrosive  poison  ;  delirium, — belladonna,  stramonium,  or  hyos- 
cyamus  ;  unusual  excitement,  with  occasional  stupor,  —  alcohol 
and  Indian  hemp  ;  loss  of  muscular  power,  feeble  pulse,  great 
prostration,  paleness  and  coldness  of  the  skin,  —  tobacco,  aco- 

1  Poison  may  slowly  do  its  work  if  taken  in  small  amount  and  repeatedly, 
and  the  person  be  considered  sick  with  a  chronic  disease.  Such  poisons  are 
called  cumulative.    Lead  and  arsenic  are  examples. 

2  Stimulants  and  medicines  containing  poisonous  ingredients,  as  chloroform, 
opium,  belladonna,  fusel  oil,  etc.,  should  not  be  left  within  the  reach  of  little 
children  or  others  likely  to  use  them  recklessly  or  without  cause.  Such  things 
should  be  in  bottles  of  a  peculiar  shape,  and  with  peculiar  colored  labels. 

"  At  a  recent  convention  of  pharmacists  in  England,  the  importance  of  fix- 
ing some  legal  limits  to  the  wholesale  poisoning  of  the  public  by  patent  medi- 
cines was  urged.  It  was  proposed  that  even  if  it  were  impossible  altogether 
to  sui^press  the  imj)osition  of  dishonest  quackery  upon  vulgar  superstition, 
the  venders  of  nostrums  should  at  least  be  compelled  to  divulge  the  compo- 
sition of  their  wares,  and  prevented  from  publishing  mischievous  and  men- 
dacious advertisements  concerning  them.  Among  the  examples  cited  were 
included  sundry  '  hair  restorers,'  which,  in  direct  contradiction  to  their  adver- 
tised pretensions,  contained  poisonous  quantities  of  lead.  But  the  most  glar- 
ing imposition  was  a  largely  certificated  '  Sure  Cure  for  the  Opium  Habit,' 
which  was  found  on  analysis  to  give  two  grains  of  morphine  to  the  dose,  and 
was  recommended  to  be  taken  thrice  a  day.  ...  It  would  be  well  if  the  Ameri- 
can public  were  taught  that  ninety-nine  hundredths  of  the  proprietary  medi- 
cines which  flood  the  market  are  the  products  of  uneducated  imposters,  and 
are  either  wholly  inert  or  positively  deleterious."  —  Dr.  A.  N.  Bell. 


EMERGENCIES.  343 

nite,  or  digitalis  ;   bloated  and  livid  face,  limbs  contracted,  head 
thrown  back,  —  the  suffocative  gases.  ^ 

Treatment:  Whatever  the  poison  may  be,  the  indications  for 
treatment  are  :  1 .  To  get  the  poison  out  of  the  body  by  encour- 
aging vomiting.  2.  To  neutralize,  or  render  inert,  by  means  of 
antidotes,  what  cannot  be  removed.  These  act  mechanically, 
chemically,  and  b}'  reason  of  their  ph3'siological  properties. 
3.  To  combat  any  dangerous  symptoms  that  have  arisen,  and 
to  obviate  their  effects  by  means  of  stimulants,  artificial  respi- 
ration, and  exciting  the  action  of  the  skin,  kidneys,  and  bowels. 
To  remove  the  poison  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  body,  re- 
sort is  had  to  emetics,  to  produce  vomiting.  Give  at  least  every 
fifteen  minutes^  until  the  effect  is  produced,  copious  draughts  of 
warm  (tepid)  water  or  other  drinks,  or  one  pint  of  warm  water 
with  half  an  ounce  of  mustard,-  well  stirred  in  together,  with 
half  an  ounce  of  common  salt,  or  two  teaspoonfuls  of  powdered 
alum  with  an  ounce  of  syrup,  or  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
wine  of  ipecac.  Tickling  the  throat  with  a  feather  assists  the 
act  of  vomiting.  If  the  person  will  not  swallow  readily,  close 
the  nostrils  with  the  thumb  and  finger  while  the  emetic  is  given. 
Insert,  if  necessary,  the  thumbs  behind  the  teeth  and  between 
the  jaws,  and  so  pry  open  the  mouth  and  depress  the  tongue 
with  the  handle  of  a  strong  spoon,  a  clothespin,  or  stick.  By 
pressing  on  the  jaws  at  their  joints,  the  mouth  will  be  forced 
open. 

Second,  To  neutralize  or  render  inert  what  cannot  he  removed. 
Examples  of  chemical  neutralizing  substances  are  weak  acids 
(lemon  juice  or  diluted  vinegar) ,  to  be  used  when  the  poisons 
are  such  alkalies  as  lime  potash,  etc.  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
alkalies  such  as  lime-water,  weak  soda-water,  and  soap-suds  to 
neutralize  acid    poisoning.       Common  salt  with  milk  and  the 

1  Alcoholic  stimulants  may  hide  the  common  symptoms  of  poisoning.  The 
profound  sleep  of  some  intoxicated  persons  resembles  closely  the  sleep  pro- 
duced by  opium. 

2  The  mustard  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water  lest  some  of  it 
may  cling  to  the  lining  of  the  stomach  and  excite  inflammation.  The  stomach 
pump  should  be  used  by  physicians  only. 


344  EMERGENCIES. 

white  of  an  egg  should  be  opposed  to  nitrate  of  silver,  verdi- 
gris, and  corrosive  sublimate.  The  fresh  hydrated  sesqui-oxide 
of  iron,  formed  b^'  precipitating  tincture  of  chloride  of  iron  with 
an  excess  of  ammonia,  is  an  antidote  for  arsenic  and  metallic 
poisons  generally.  Belladonna  is  an  example  of  a  physiological 
antidote.  It  dilates  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  in  opposition  to 
opium,  which  contracts  it.  Coffee  is  a  valuable  physiological 
antidote  to  opium,  its  tendencj^  being  to  excite  and  to  overcome 
stupefaction.  Mechanical  antidotes,  i.e.,  such  as  allay  irrita- 
tion, are  olive  oil,  milk,  flour  and  water  (in  a  thin  paste) ,  chalk 
mixtures,  castor  oil,  mucilage,  flaxseed  tea,  the  white  of  egg 
and  water,  etc.  ;  and,  in  case  of  strychnine  poisoning,  charcoal 
mingled  with  water.  They  serve  to  coat  over  the  irritated 
mucous  membrane,  and  thus  protect  it. 


INDIVIDUAL  POISONS. 

IRRITANT    AND    CORROSIVE    POISONS. 

If  the  poison  taken  is  known  to  be  a  corrosive  one,  emetics 
should  be  omitted,  and  recourse  had  immediately  to  antidotes. 

1.  Acids.  —  Sulphuric  (oil  of  vitriol),  nitric  (aqua  fortis), 
chlorohydric  or  muriatic,  oxalic,  carbolic,  ^  acetic,  etc.  The 
first  three  of  the  above  are  much  used  in  certain  factories, 
photographing  establishments,  etc.,  and  are  sometimes  left  care- 
lessly about.  Oxalic  acid  resembles  in  appearance  epsom 
salts,  and  is  sometimes  taken  by  mistake  for  the  latter.  It  is 
frequently  used  to  polish  kitchen  boilers. 

Antidotes.  Baking  soda,  borax,  chalk,  magnesia,  wall  plaster 
or  saleratus  mixed  with  water,  lime-water,  soap-suds,  oil  in  large 
amount,  followed  by  mucilaginous  drinks,  stimulants.  When 
sulphuric  acid  has  been  taken,  it  should  be  quickly  diluted  by  a 
free  use  of  ice  water. 


1  Carbolic  acid,  so  called,  is  not  properly  an  acid. 


EMERGENCIES.  B45 

2.  Alkalies  and  their  Salts. — Ammonia  (hartshorn,  liquor 
or  water  of  ammonia,  muriate  of  ammonia  or  sal  ammoniac), 
potassa  (caustic  potash  in  sticks  and  lumps,  mistaken  by  a 
child  for  candy) ;  lev  ;  liquor  potassae,  a  clear,  liquid  medicine  ; 
pearlash  or  carbonate  of  potash ;  nitrate  of  potash,  or  salt- 
petre, used  in  corning  beef,  etc.,  has  been  mistaken  for  purga- 
tive salts ;  chlorate  of  potash,  a  common  remed}'  for  sore 
throat,  has  been  used  unwittingly  in  large  and  poisonous  doses  ; 
binoxalate  of  potash,  has  been  taken  by  mistake  for  cream  of 
tartar),  soda. 

Antidotes:  Vegetable  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  lemon  juice, 
citric  and  tartaric  acid  in  solution;  fixed  oils,  viz.,  castor,  lin- 
seed, olive,  cod-liver,  machine,  form  soaps  and  so  prevent 
caustic  effects ;  mucilaginous  drinks,  especially  when  saltpetre 
has  been  taken. 

3.  Metallic  Substances. —  Antimony:  in  the  medicines,  tar- 
tar emetic  and  wiiic  of  antimony,  an  ingredient  of  pewter,  of 
Britannia,  and  type  metal ;  oxide  of  antimony. 

Antidotes:  Assist  the  distressing  vomiting  by  draughts  of 
tepid  water,  flaxseed  tea,  sugar  water;  give  teaspoonful  of 
tannin  ;  a  cup  of  strong,  green  tea. 

Arsenic  :  an  ingredient  of  paris  green,  used  as  a  paint,  and 
to  destroy  insects  among  plants  ;  of  orpiment,  a  3'ellow  paint ; 
of  realgar,  a  red  paint ;  of  arsenite  of  copper,  or  scheeles, 
green;  in  some  brightly'  colored  artificial  flowers,  wall  papers, 
candy  boxes,  and  kindergarten  papers ;  in  fly  powders,  rat 
pastes ;  used  in  the  stuffing  of  birds,  by  enamellers,  and  in 
fowlers'  solution  ;  a  medicine.  Arsenic,  as  ordinarily  obtained 
in  the  shops,  is  a  fine,  white  powder,  and  may  be  mistaken  for 
sugar  or  some  equally-  harmless  substance. 

Antidotes:  Freshly  prepared  peroxide  of  iron  (to  be  obtained 
at  a  drug  store)  in  large  quantity,  or  mix  three  or  four  table- 
spoonfuls  of  aqua  ammonia  with  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
muriated  tincture  of  iron,  strain  through  a  cloth,  and  use  the 
brownish  precipitate  left  on  the  cloth  after  washing  with  water. 
Give  one  teaspoonful  every  few  minutes.     Dialysed  iron,  char- 


346  EMERGENCIES. 

coal,  and  calcined  magnesia  are  other  antidotes.  Encourage 
vomiting.     Allay  irritation. 

Copper  :  in  some  cooking  utensils ;  in  the  allocs,  bronze, 
brass,  bell  metal,  german  silver,  etc.  ;  in  sulphate  of  copper  or 
blue  vitriol,  acetate  of  copper  or  verdigris.  Poisoning  has 
occurred  from  pickles  made  green  by  copper ;  b}-  the  use  of 
colored  confectionery ;  from  the  wrappers  of  farinaceous  foods  ; 
inferior  gold  filing  for  the  teeth,  and  copper  dust  in  some  of 
the  trades. 

Antidotes :  Milk ;  white  of  eggs ;  enough  baking  soda  to 
cover  an  ordinarj^  nickel  cent,  every  five  minutes  for  half  an 
hour.     Allay  irritation. 

Lead  :  In  the  acetate  or  sugar  of  lead  often  used  as  an  appli- 
cation to  sores,  or  as  an  eye  wash ;  i  in  "white  lead"  and  "red 
oxide"  of  the  painters  ;  in  some  hair  dyes  ;  water  kept  in  leaden 
vessels  or  pipes  ;  wines  sweetened  by  lead  ;  tin  foil  covering  of 
tobacco  and  farinaceous  foods  ;  pickle  jars  with  metal  tops,  and 
in  newly  painted  rooms.  Poisoning  by  it  has  occurred  among 
the  makers  and  users  of  glazed  cards,  japan  ware,  cosmetics, 
lead  type,  and  tin  spoons. 

Antidotes :  Strong  solution  of  Epsom  or  Glaubers  salts,  for 
the  soluble  preparations  of  lead;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  the 
insoluble. 

Mercury  :  Bi-chloride  or  corrosive  sublimate,  used  in  solution 
as  a  medicine,  as  an  ingredient  of  freckle  and  other  lotions,  and 
for  the  destruction  of  vermin ;  an  ingredient  of  the  red  oxide 
or  red  precipitate,  white  precipitate,  etc.,  upon  looking-glasses. 
Used  in  the  preservation  of  stuffed  birds  and  animals,  etc.  ;  is 
corrosive. 

Antidotes :  White  of  eggs ;  flour  beaten  up  with  milk  and 
water. 

Silver  :  Lunar  caustic  or  nitrate  of  silver,  an  ingredient  of 
hair  dyes ;  used  in  solution  as  a  lotion ;  some  forms  used  in 
photograph}'  and  the  trades. 

1  Eye-washes  contaiuiug  lead  are  apt  to  cause  opacity  of  the  eye. 


EMERGENCIES.  347 

Antidotefi :  One  to  two  teaspoon  fills  of  salt  in  a  tumbler  of 
water  decomposes  the  poison  and  arrests  its  activity.  Allay 
irritation. 

Zinc  :  Sulphate  of  zinc  or  white  vitriol,  used  in  lotions ; 
chloride  of  zinc  in  disinfectants. 

Antidotes:  Carbonate  of  soda  in  water;  milk  and  white  of 
eggs.     Vomiting  relieved  by  copious  draughts  of  warm  v/ater. 

Tin  :  In  some  dyeing  substances  ;  in  poor  cans  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  food. 

Antidotes.     See  Copper. 

Iodine  :    Ordinary  tincture  of  iodine,  as  in  some  liniments. 

Antidote :  Starch  and  water. 

Iron  :  Copperas,  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  used  in 
lotions  and  as  disinfectant. 

Antidotes :  Baking  soda  and  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Phosphorus  :  An  ingredient  of  many  rat  poisons.  Children 
have  been  poisoned  by  eating  these,  and  bv  sucking  matches. 
The  vapor  in  match  factories  is  a  source  of  poison. 

Antidotes :  Large  quantities  of  magnesia  or  chalk  in  water ; 
milk  of  magnesia;  white  of  eggs.     Avoid  fatty  substances. 

4.  Gases.  —  Chlorine  :  A  suffocative  gas  used  in  trades  and 
chemical  experiments.  Carbonic  Oxide  (generally  odor  of 
stove  gas)  :  From  incomplete  combustion  in  stoves  and  fur- 
naces. Carbonic  Acid  (choke  damp)  :  In  deep  wells,  cisterns, 
and  vats  in  closed  cellars  ;  in  mines,  sewers,  etc.  Sulphuretted 
Hydrogen  (odor  of  decaying  eggs)  :  Subtle  poison,  found  wher- 
ever there  is  putrefaction  ;  in  cesspools,  sewers,  outhouses,  etc. 
Illuminating  Gas,  etc. 

Antidotes:  Fresh,  pure  air;  dashes  of  cold  water  upon  the 
face;  inhalation  of  vapor  of  ammonia  ;  artificial  respiration. 

5.  Animal  and  i^egeiable.  —  Poisonous  Fish  :  conger  eel, 
bladder  fish,  gray  snapper,  etc.,  with  some  ;  certain  shell-fish. 

Antidotes :  Emetics  ;  emollients  ;  strong  purgative  ;  stimu- 
lants. 


348  EMERGENCIES. 

Oil  of  Savin  :  Volatile  oil  from  the  red  cedar,  sometimes 
improperly  used  medicinally,  is  a  marked  irritant. 

Antidotes :  Ice  ;  coffee  ;  ten  drops  of  paregoric  every  fifteen 
minutes  till  relief.     Allay  irritation. 

Croton  Oil  :  A  violent  purgative,  also  used  in  liniments ; 
may  be  mistaken  for  a  harmless  oil.  Poke  Berries  :  sometimes 
eaten  by  children.  Oil  of  Tansy  ;  Beans  of  the  Castor-Oil 
Plant,  sometimes  eaten  by  children.  Common  Wild  Parsnip  ; 
Oleander  ;  Marsh  Marigold.  Cantharides  or  Spanish  Fly  ; 
Coi^CHicuM,  used  frequently  in  rheumatic  medicines,  etc. 

Antidotes:  After  vomiting,  strong  coffee  or  vinegar  and 
water  ;  mucilaginous  drinks  ;  stimulants. 

ACRO-NARCOTIC. 

Lobelia  or  Indian  Tobacco,  used  medicinally ;  Meadow 
Saffron  ;  Spigelia  or  Pink  Root,  sometimes  recklessly  used 
as  a  vermifuge.  Spurred  Rye,  or  Ergot,  in  medicines,  some- 
times ground  with  the  rye.  Sanguinaria,  or  Blood-Root,  in 
medicines.  Nicotine  of  Tobacco,  especiall}-  in  pipes  and  cigar- 
holders  long  used  ;  in  cigarettes  and  chewing  tobacco.  Mush- 
rooms (some  varieties)  :  The  edible  has  purple  spores ;  gills 
are  at  first  delicate  pink,  afterwards  purple  and  tawny  black  ; 
stem  white,  full,  firm,  var3'ing  in  shape,  luith  a  white,  persistent 
ring.^  It  must  be  sought  for  in  the  open  fields.  The  best  kinds 
have  an  agreeable  odor,  and  do  not  change  color  when  plucked 
and  exposed  to  the  air.  Poisonous  mushrooms,  according  to 
Christison,  are  recognized  by  their  dark  color ;  acrid,  bitter 
taste  ;  pungent  odor ;  and  by  the  fact  that  the3^  generall}^  grow 
in  dark,  damp  places.^      Aconite   (Monkshood,  Wolfsbane)  : 

1  Fungi  and  their  Uses.    Cooke. 

2  "On  the  subject  of  distinguishing  poisonous  species,  Mr,  Cooke  says  that 
there  is  no  golden  rule  which  will  enable  us  to  tell  at  a  glance  the  good  species 
from  the  bad.  The  only  safe  guide  lies  in  mastering,  one  by  one,  the  specific 
distinctions,  and  increasing  the  knowledge  through  experience,  as  a  child  learns 
to  distinguish  a  filbert  from  an  acorn,  or  a  leaf  of  sorrel  from  one  of  white 
clover.  The  characters  of  half  a  dozen  good,  esculent  species,  he  says,  may  be 
learned  as  easily  as  the  ploughboy  learns  to  discriminate  as  many  species  of 


EMERGENCIES.  349 

Preparations  of  leaves  and  roots  used  medicinall}',  internally, 
and  in  liniments.  Preparations  of  the  root  are  several  times 
stronger  than  those  of  the  leaves.  The  plant  has  been  mistaken 
for  the  horse  radish.  This  poison  produces  peculiar  numbness, 
or  tingling  sensations  in  the  mouth,  throat,  and  skin.  Meze- 
REON :  A  garden  shrub  having  bright  red  berries,  sometimes 
eaten  by  mistake  for  currants. 

Antidotes:  Fresh  air,  stimulants,  electricity,  cold  douches, 
artificial  respiration     Allay  irritation. 

THE  SEPTIC   POISONS. 

Venomous  Bites  and  Stings.  —  In  case  of  snake  bite,  or 
that  of  a  rabid  animal,  or  one  supposed  to  be  mad,  tie  a  string 
or  handkerchief  tightly  about  the  limb  just  above  the  bite  ;  then 
suck  the  wound,  or  encourage  the  blood  to  flow  by  means  of  a 
cupping-glass.  Wash  out  the  wound  and  rub  thoroughly  into 
it  a  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  paint  it  with  tincture  of  iodine, 
or  press  into  it,  for  a  moment,  the  e.nd  of  a  red-hot  knitting- 
needle  or  steel  for  sharpening  knives.  Sometimes  the  bite  of  a 
human  being  is  very  dangerous. 

Treatment :  In  case  of  snake  bites  especially,  administer  alco- 
holic stimulants  freely.  To  the  wounds  made  by  bites  and 
stings,  apply  mild,  unstimulating  applications,  viz.,  oil,  vaseline, 
cold  cream,  suet,  etc.  Support  the  patient's  strength.  Stings 
of  bees,  wasps,  scorpions,  etc.,  extract  the  "  stinger"  by  fingers, 
small  forceps,  or  pressing  about  it  with  the  barrel  end  of  a 
watch  key ;  then  apply  spirits  of  ammonia,  saleratus  water,  or 
mud. 

Virulent  Wounds,  Infectious  Diseases.  —  The  contact  of  the 
skin,  denuded  of  its  outer  covering,  with  decomposing  sub- 
birds.  He  tells  us,  moreover,  that  it  is  not  enough  to  avoid  poisonous  species, 
but  that  discretion  should  be  used  in  preparing  and  eating  good  ones.  They 
change  so  rapidly,  that  even  the  cultivated  mushroom,  if  long  kept,  is  unfit 
for  use.  Nor  is  it  enough  that  they  be  of  good  species  and  fresh  ;  but  plenty 
of  salt  must  be  used  in  their  preparation,  to  neutralize  any  deleterious  prop- 
erty, and  pepper  and  vinegar  are  also  recommended  as  advantageous."— Pop?(- 
lar  Science  Monthly. 


350  EMERGENCIES. 

stances,  irritating  plants,  such  as  the  poison  ivy,  poisonous 
cards,  utensils,  etc.,  and  of  the  mucous  membrane  with  matter 
secreted  from  diseased  surfaces,  has  produced  diseases  from 
which  persons  have  died. 

Treatment:  Stimulants  internally,  and  mild  applications  ex- 
ternally, till  the  doctor  comes. 


NARCOTIC    POISONS. 

Opium  (active  principles,  morphia,  codeia,  etc.)  in  laudanum, 
paregoric,  Godfrey's  cordials,  Dover's  powder,  many  liniments, 
soothing  syrups,  cholera  mixtures,  Dalby's  carminative,  etc., 
is  a  particularly  active  poison  in  the  very  3'oung  and  the 
old. 

Antidotes:  Strong  coffee,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  (five 
drops  ever}'  fifteen  minutes  till  recovered),  electricity,  cold 
douches,  slapping  of  the  surface  by  hands  or  wet  towels.  Keep 
the  patient  moving  if  inclined  to  sleep ^  and,  if  possible,  in  the 
open  air. 

Belladonna  (deadly  nightshade)  in  ointments,  liniments,  and 
lotions.  Its  active  principle,  atropia,  is  used  in  solution  by 
oculists  as  an  application  to  the  eye.  The  leaves  and  berries 
of  the  plant  are  sometimes  eaten  by  children  by  mistake. 

Aritidotes :  Cold  douches  ;  brandy  ;  paregoric,  fifteen  drops,  or 
laudanum,  five  drops,  with  care,  every  quarter  of  an  hour,  with 
large  doses  of  lime-water  ;  electricity. 

Hemlock. — Five  varieties  are  said  to  be  poisonous,  and  all 
parts  of  the  plant.  The  roots  of  the  water  hemlock  are  some- 
times mistaken  for  parsnips.  One  variet}^  (fools'  parsley)  is 
sometimes  mistaken  for  ordinar}'  parsley.  The  hemlock  is 
common,  and  grows  in  hedges  and  wild  places. 

Antidotes :  Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia.  If  much  pain  and 
vomiting,  ten  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium  every  half-hour, 
or  hour,  as  the  case  demands. 


EMERGENCIES.  351 

Stramonium  (thorn  apple,  "  Jimson  "  or  ''Jamestown  weed  "). 
—  Found  along  roadside,  and  near  fences  in  out-of-the-way 
places.     Seeds  sometimes  eaten  by  children. 

Antidotes:  See  Belladonna. 

Strychnine,  as  sold  in  the  shops,  is  a  white  powder ;  bought 
frequently  to  poison  animals  ;  may  be  taken  by  persons  by  mis- 
take ;  is  also  an  ingredient  of  tincture  of  nux  vomica,  a  medi- 
cine. 

Antidotes:  Chloroform,  or  ether,  inhaled  to  relieve  spasm; 
cold  douches  ;  aromatic  ammonia  ;  camphor  spirits ;  chloral 
hydrate,  five  grains  every  half  hour ;  rectal  injection  of  an  in- 
fusion of  tobacco  ;  artificial  respiration. 

Prussia  Acid. — Hydrocj^anic  acid,  used  in  a  dilute  form, 
medicinally  ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  used  to  kill  moths,  butter- 
flies, etc.,  in  laurel  water;  the  meat  of  peach,  cherry,  plum, 
and  almond  pits,  if  freely  eaten. 

Antidotes :  See  Gases. 

Chloroform  and  Chloral,  both,  too  often  used  indiscriminately 
and  recklessly  by  people  at  large. 

Antidotes:  Slapping  of  body,  cold  douches,  electricity,  artifi- 
cial respiration. 

Digitalis  (foxglove) ,  a  garden  plant.  Its  extract  used  me- 
dicinally. 

Antidotes:  Same  as  for  Belladonna. 

Hyoscyamus  (  henbane  ) .  —  Used  medicinally. 
Antidotes:  Same  as  for  Belladonna. 

Alcohol.  —  Used  repeatedl}',  even  in  so-called  moderate 
amount,  is  a  slow  poison.  In  the  young  and  feeble,  it  has 
caused  acute  poisoning,  and  even  death. 

Antidotes:  In  acute  poisoning,  emetics,  cold  douches,  coffee, 
aromatic  ammonia,  and  slapping  the  soles  of.  the  feet. 


APPENDIX    NOTES. 


APPENDIX    NOTES. 


Arranged  according  to  the  pages  and  paragraphs  to  which  they  belong. 
In  the  text,  reference  to  these  notes  is  made  by  letters. 


Page  22,  §  33  (a.).  The  Human  Hand. —  "  We  ought  to  define  the  hand 
as  belonging  exclusively  to  man,  corresponding  in  sensibility  and  motion 
with  that  ingenuity  which  converts  the  being  who  is  the  weakest  in  natural 
defence  to  the  ruler  over  animate  and  inanimate  nature.  .  .  .  The  armed 
extremities  of  a  variety  of  animals  give  them  great  advantages ;  but  if  man 
possessed  any  similar  provisions,  he  would  forfeit  his  sovereignty  over  all 
As  Galen  long  since  observed .  '  Did  man  possess  the  natural  armor  of  the 
brutes,  he  would  no  longer  work  as  an  artificer,  nor  protect  himself  with  a 
breastplate,  nor  fashion  a  sword  or  spear,  nor  invent  a  bridle  to  mount  the 
horse  and  hunt  the  lion ;  neither  could  he  follow  the  arts  of  peace,  con- 
struct the  pipe  and  lyre,  erect  houses,  place  altars,  inscribe  laws,  and, 
through  letters,  liold  communication  with  the  wisdom  of  antiquity.'  But 
the  hand  is  not  a  distinct  instrument ;  nor  is  it  properly  a  superadded  part. 
The  whole  frame  must  conform  to  the  hand,  and  act  with  reference  to  it." 
—  The  Hand.     Bell. 

P.  28,  §  40  (a.).  Importance  of  Conjoint  Action  of  Muscles.— ''The 
state  of  equilibration  between  the  muscles  performing  opposite  kinds  of 
movements  .  .  .  may  be  readily  illustrated  by  the  part  played  by  the 
muscles  placed  before  and  behind  the  spine,  in  maintaining  the  erect 
posture  of  the  body.  The  position  is  kept  up  without  effort,  without 
even  consciousness,  by  the  healthy  man  whose  muscles  are  well  balanced 
and  in  good  'tone.'  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  same  man,  after  a  long 
day's  work  over  a  desk  in  an  ill-ventilated  city  office,  no  longer  presents 
that  supreme  unconsciousness  of  his  muscles  and  their  action,  and  the 
stoop  of  his  shoulders  and  bent  head  demonstrate  to  others  that  the 
balance  is  no  longer  kept,  that  the  tonicity  of  the  morning  has  passed 
off,  and  the  wearied  muscles  are  no  longer  on  the  watch.  And  so  it 
is  when,  in  sleep,  the  muscles  are  relaxed  and  gravity  asserts  its  force, 
so  that  the  head  falls  forward  by  its  own  weight,  no  longer  restrained  by 
the  passive  counteraction  of  its  'extensor'  muscles.  ...  So  little  is  the 
effort  required  to  keep  the  body  erect,  that  it  is  a  sign  rather  of  weakness 
than  strength  in  anyone  who  exercises  an  effort  to  do  this.  This  may  seem 
paradoxical,  but  it  is  nevertheless  the  case;  and  he  who  walks  'bolt  up- 


356  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

right/  with  his  chin  in  the  air  and  his  back  as  rigid  as  a  plank,  is  often 
not  a  strong  but  a  weak  man."  —  Personal  Appearances  (Health  Primer). 
Sidney  Coupland,  M.D. 

P.  30,  §  43  (a.).  Steep.  —  "Animals  possessing  a  well-developed  nerv- 
ous system  must,  night  after  night,  or  day  after  day,  or  at  least  time  after 
time,  lay  them  down  to  sleep.  The  salient  feature  of  sleep  is  the  cessation 
of  the  automatic  activity  of  the  brain.  But  the  condition  is  not  confined  to 
the  cerebral  hemispheres ;  all  parts  of  the  body  either  directly  or  indirectly 
take  share  in  it.  The  phenomena  of  sleep  are  perhaps  seen  in  their 
simplest  form  in  the  winter-sleep  of  hibernation,  to  which  especially  cold- 
blooded animals,  but  also  to  some  extent  warm-blooded  animals,  are 
sub j  ect."  —  Text-Book  of  Physiology.     Foste  r  . 

P.  30,  §  43  (h.).  Time  to  be  allotted  to  Sleep .  —  "  Where  attempts 
have  been  made  by  literary  characters  to  assign  a  proper  period  for  sleep, 
they  have  either  been  guided  by  their  known  capabilities,  or  by  what  they 
have  esteemed  themselves  capable  of  effecting ;  or  they  have  been  led,  in 
their  ignorance  of  physiology,  into  Utopian  considerations  regarding  the 
time  wasted,  as  they  conceive,  in  rest.  How  else  can  we  account  for  the 
idea  of  Jeremy  Taylor,  that  three  hours  only  in  the  twenty-four  should 
be  devoted  to  sleep  1  In  an  equally  arbitrary  manner,  Baxter  fixes  on 
four  hours,  Wesley  on  six,  and  Lord  Coke  on  seven.  So  much  depends 
on  the  constitution  and  habits  of  individuals,  that  if  some  were  restricted 
to  the  period  allotted  by  Baxter,  or  Taylor  especially,  their  lives  could 
not  fail  to  pay  the  forfeit.  Men  of  active  minds,  whose  attention  is 
engaged  in  a  series  of  interesting  employments,  sleep  much  less  than  the 
lazy  and  listless.  It  is  probable  that,  in  these  cases,  sleep  is  more  intense." 
—  Human  Health.     Eobley  Dunglison,  M.D. 

P.  35,  §  50  (a.).  The  lvalue  of  Competitive  Sports  among  Students.  — 
Recognizing  both  the  value  of  competitive  sports  in  inducing  physical 
exercise,  and  the  danger,  especially  to  the  ambitious,  of  over-training, 
a  number  of  the  leading  colleges  and  seminaries  in  this  country  have 
well-appointed  gymnasiums,  with  efficient  medical  directors,  who  also  give 
instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene.  Among  the  colleges  may  be 
mentioned  Harvard^  Yale,  Cornell,  Amherst,  Wellesley,  and  Smith.  Prof. 
Edward  Hitchcock,  M.D.,  says  of  the  work  accomplished  at  Amherst: 
"  From  the  beginning  of  the  existence  of  the  department  of  physical  educa- 
tion in  Amherst  College  it  has  never  been  the  desire  to  develop  the  mus- 
cular system  at  the  expense  of  any  other  part  of  the  body,  as  is  too  often 
understood  to  be  the  meaning  of  physical  education  or  training.  This 
department  was  not  created,  nor  has  it  been  developed,  for  the  purpose  of 
extraordinary  attention  to  the  muscular  system.  Its  sole  object  has  been 
to  keep  the  bodily  health  up  to  the  normal  standard,  so  that  tlie  mind  may 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  357 

accomplish  the  most  work,  and  to  preserve  the  bodily  powers  in  full  activity 
for  both  the  daily  duties  of  college  and  the  promised  labor  of  a  long  life. 
Indeed,  in  that  particular,  the  precept  of  Cicero  has  been  literally  followed, 
namely,  that  bodily  exercise  should  have  for  its  chief  object  the  develop- 
ment of  a  capacity  for  rational  work.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  been 
equally  desired  that  the  so-called  exercises  of  this  department  should  be 
mentally  as  well  as  pliysically  enjoyed  by  the  students,  and  not  be  made  a 
tedious,  mechanical,  or  heavy  drill.  .  .  .  The  results  accomplished  by  this 
department  in  Amherst  College  lead  its  government  to  continue  its  exist- 
ence, and  sustain  it  on  a  par  with  the  others." 

Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent,  Professor  of  physical  training  at  Harvard,  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  Nov.  14,  1883, 
says :  "  Students  enter  college  trained  in  mind  but  not  in  body ;  and  where 
one  fails  for  want  of  mental  ability,  ten  break  down  for  want  of  physical 
stamina.  Many  are  short  in  stature  for  their  age,  or  tall  and  slender, 
with  a  deficiency  of  muscular  strength.  Under  an  appropriate  system  of 
physical  training,  however,  they  make  most  rapid  advancement,  showing 
that  their  bodies  had  been  kept  in  arrears  while  their  brains  were  devel- 
oped. Many  are  ignorant  of  the  first  principles  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  and  leave  school  with  acquired  defects  which  are  past  remedying, 
but  which  a  little  appropriate  knowledge  and  training  could  have  obviated. 
Not  infrequently  the  students  who  stood  the  highest  in  the  preparatory 
schools  are  taken  with  a  sort  of  mental  dyspepsia  after  entering  college, 
and  devote  most  of  their  energies  to  physical  exercises.  This  is  inva- 
riably the  case  where  the  preparatory  training  has  been  forced  and  unnat- 
ural." 

P.  36,  §  51  (a.).    Cramp  and  Palsy  from  over-use  of  one  set  of  Muscles. 

—  A  form  of  palsy,  sometimes  known  as  hammer  palsy,  occurs  from 
the  repeated  use  of  a  hammer  in  scissors-making  and  forging  of  knife- 
blades,  100  blows,  it  is  said,  being  necessary  to  forge  one  blade.  In  one 
day  a  good  operator  will  make  24  dozen  blades.  "Tailor's  palsy," 
"milker's  cramp,"  and  "writer's  cramp,"  are  instances  of  the  over-use 
of  certain  muscles.  In  regard  to  "  writer's  cramp,"  Dr.  Geo.  M.  Beard 
states,  after  an  examination  of  125  cases,  that  "it  is  far  less  likely  to 
occur  in  those  who  do  original  work,  as  authors,  journalists,  composers, 
than  in  those  who  do  routine  work,  as  clerks,  book-keepers,  copyists, 
agents,  etc." 

P.  36,  §  52  (a.).    Some  of  the  Results  of  Improper  Muscular  Exercise. 

—  "  Every  year  a  number  of  middle-aged  men,  who  for  years  or  months 
have  been  engaged  in  the  sedentary  occupation  of  a  profession,  of  litera- 
ture, or  of  business,  at  the  commencement  of  the  autumn  holidays  start 
for  the  continent  or  the  highlands,  and   suddenly   undertake  immense 


358  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

fatigue  in  tlie  ascent  of  Alpine  heights,  or  the  no  less  laborious  work  of 
a  day  on  the  moors,  without  the  least  preparation.  So,  also,  we  see  every 
bank  holiday,  crowds  of  young  men  starting  off  for  some  tremendous 
walk,  or  'bucket'  up  the  river,  utterly  unprepared  for  the  task  they 
undertake.  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  men  return  complaining  that 
their  holiday  has  done  them  no  good  ;  that,  instead  of  vigor,  they  complain 
of  exhaustion;  that  their  appetite  fails  them,  their  nights  are  sleepless, 
their  limbs  ache,  and  they  are  jaded  and  spiritless?  It  is  the  evils  pro- 
duced from  this  erratic  athleticism  that  give  rise  to  the  formidable  indict- 
ments that  from  time  to  time  have  been  urged  against  vigorous  exercise 
and  the  pursuit  of  manly  sports,  which,  if  properly  managed,  and  under- 
taken systematically,  are  really  the  foundation  of  really  healthy  life."  — 
Exercise  and  Training  (Health  Primer).     C.  H.  Ralfe,  M.D. 

"  By  skilful  training,  it  is  quite  true  that  men  may  be,  and  are,  brought 
to  a  fine  external  standard ;  but  the  external  development  is  so  commonly 
the  covering  of  an  internal  and  fatal  evil,  that  I  venture  to  affirm  there  is 
not  in  England  a  trained  professional  athlete  of  the  age  of  thirty-five, 
who  has  been  ten  years  at  his  calling,  who  is  not  disabled."  —  Health  of 
Rowing  Men.     Dr.  E,  H.  Bradford. 

How  old  this  experience  is,  in  regard  to  trained  athletes,  may  be  seen 
by  the  remark  of  an  ancient  medical  writer  quoted  on  page  34  of  the  text. 

P.  38,  §  54  (a.).  Why  Young  Women  should  have  Muscular  Exercise. 
—  "It  has  been  my  privilege,  for  more  than  twenty-five  years,  to  be 
intimately  associated  with  young  women,  either  as  teacher  in  the  school 
room  in  the  earlier  years,  or  as  medical  practitioner,  or  teacher  of  hygiene, 
during  the  latter  ones,  and  every  day's  added  experience  only  confirms  me 
in  the  position  I  have  occupied  from  the  first  relative  to  the  various  forms 
of  nervousness  which  characterize  our  sex.  That  position  affirms  that  the 
best  possible  balance  for  a  weak,  nervous  system,  is  a  well-developed 
muscular  system.  Weak,  shaky,  hysterical  nerves  always  accompany  soft, 
flabby  muscles ;  and  it  is  a  mournful  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  young 
icomen  whom  I  meet  in  schools  are  notably  deficient  in  muscular  develop- 
ment." —  Dr.  Mary  J.  Studley. 

P.  39,  §  56  [a.).  Good  Effects  of  Certain  Forms  of  Exercise.  — "Danc- 
ing is  a  cheerful  and  useful  exercise,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
used  within  doors,  in  confined  air,  and  often  in  dusty  rooms  and  at  most 
unseasonable  hours.  Practised  in  the  open  air,  and  in  the  daytime,  as  is 
common  in  France,  dancing  is  certainly  an  invigorating  pastime ;  but  in 
heated  rooms,  and  at  late  hours,  it  is  the  reverse,  as  these  do  more  harm 
than  can  be  compensated  by  the  healthful  exercise  of  the  dance."  —  Dr. 
Combe. 

"The  bicycle  is  evidently  the  coming  horse  of  the  future,  fully  compre- 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  359 

bending  all  the  advantages  of  horse-back  riding  as  a  healthful  exercise, 
and  excelling  in  all  the  pleasures  of  the  country  tourist.  The  velocipede 
of  a  few  years  ago  is  among  the  things  that  were,  although  it  did  good 
service  for  the  time  in  straightening  the  backs  and  filling  the  chests  of 
school-boys  and  collegians,  at  some  risk,  on  account  of  defects  in  construc- 
tion ;  but  those  defects  have  all  been  surmounted  in  the  bicycle,  and  the 
risk  of  injury  from  riding  is  really  less  than  that  of  the  horse."  —  Dr. 
A.  N.  Bell,  in  Sanitarian. 

"  Five  minutes  of  pretty  brisk  exercise  on  the  bars,  or  with  dumb-bells, 
or  in  any  other  moderate  way,  repeated  several  times  during  the  morning, 
will  have  a  wonderfully  good  effect  in  promoting  full  respiration,  purify- 
ing the  blood,  and  in  nourishing  the  muscular  system.  The  writer  often 
picks  up  a  chair,  or  any  other  moderate  weight  at  hand,  and  after  five 
minutes'  play  therewith,  over  the  head  or  otherwise,  can  feel  that  the 
muscles  of  the  arm  have,  in  that  short  time,  secured  an  extra  supply  of 
blood,  which  tends  at  once  to  nourish  them,  and  to  diffuse  and  equalize 
the  circulation." — Popular  Science  Monthly.     Dr.  Richard  McSherry. 

"  It  is  surprising  how  short  a  period  of  vigorous  exercise,  daily,  will 
develop  an  approach  to  the  maximum  of  muscular  power."  ...  "I 
believe  that  one  hour  a  day  of  vigorous  exercise,  with  proper  attention  to 
diet,  will  eflSciently  train  a  well-formed  and  healthy  man  for  any  reasona- 
ble feat  of  strength  or  endurance." —  The  Source  of  Muscular  Power. 
Austin  Flint,  Jr.,  M.D. 

P.  45,  §  63  (a.).     The  Production  of  Corns  and  Callous  Spots.  —  It  is  a 

law  that  interrupted  pressure  produces  hypertrophy,  i.e.,  an  increase  of 
nourishment  or  supply,  resulting  in  an  increase  of  size,  and  constant  pres- 
sure produces  atrophy,  or  a  want  of  nourishment  or  supply,  resulting  in 
a  decrease  of  size.  By  the  interrupted  pressure  exerted  in  ordinary 
vocations,  the  epidermis  of  the  palm  and  soles  becomes  much  thickened. 
"  Callous "  spots  upon  the  knees  of  shoemakers  and  the  chests  of  other 
workmen,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  interrupted  pressure  upon  the  respec- 
tive parts  of  lapstone  and  hammer,  "  brace  and  bit,"  "  burnishers,"  "  breast- 
drills,"  etc.  Corns,  in  like  manner,  are  the  result  of  the  irritation  of 
certain  portions  of  the  epidermis  lying  near  to  the  bones,  by  the  inter- 
rupted pressure  from  shoes  which  are  either  too  tight  or  too  loose.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  constant  pressure  of  shoes,  bandages,  etc.  (i.e.,  by 
night  and  day),  will  cause  atrophy,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  deformities  of 
the  feet  of  certain  Chinese  girls. 

P.  46,  §  QQ  [a  ).  The  Vast  Number  of  Pores  of  the  Skin,  and  of  its 
Drainage  Tubes.  —  "Taken  separately,  the  little  perspiratory  tube,  with 
its  appended  gland,  is  calculated  to  awaken  in  the  mind  very  little  idea 
of  the  importance  of  the  system  to  which  it  belongs ;  but  when  the  vast 


360  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

number  of  similar  organs  composing  this  system  are  considered,  —  for 
it  includes  the  sebiparous  glands,  which  are  also  agents  in  perspira- 
tion, —  we  are  led  to  form  some  notion,  however  imperfect,  of  their  proba- 
ble influence  on  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  individual.  I  use  the 
words  *  imperfect  notion '  advisedly,  for  the  reality  surpasses  imagination, 
and  almost  belief.  ...  I  counted  the  perspiratory  pores  on  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  and  found  3528  to  a  square  inch.  Now,  each  of  these  pores 
being  the  aperture  of  a  little  tube  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  it 
follows  that  in  a  square  inch  of  skin  on  the  palm  of  the  hand  there 
exists  a  length  of  tube  equal  to  882  inches,  or  73^  feet.  ...  I  think  that 
2800  might  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  of  the  number  of  pores  in  the 
square  inch  of  surface,  and  700,  consequently,  of  the  number  of  inches 
in  length  of  the  tubes.  Now,  the  number  of  square  inches  of  surface  in 
a  man  of  ordinary  height  and  bulk  is  2500 ;  the  number  of  pores,  there- 
fore, 7,000,000 ;  and  the  number  of  inches  of  perspiratory  tube,  1,750,000 ; 
that  is,  145,833  feet,  or  48,600  yards,  or  nearly  twenty-eight  miles."  —  Dis- 
eases of  the  Skin.     Wilson. 

P.  49,  §  71  (a.).  Causes  of  Baldness.  How  to  maintain  the  Healt/i  of 
the  Hair. —  Baldness,  which,  at  the  time  of  writing,  is  very  common 
among  middle-aged  men,  as  well  as  among  the  old,  results  from  local 
or  general  causes,  or  both  combined,  from  the  pressure  of  tight  hats 
and  caps  cutting  off  the  supply  of  blood,  from  the  lack  of  air,  by  wear- 
ing head  coverings  too  constantly,  from  diseases  of  the  scalp,  such  as 
animal  and  vegetable  parasitic  growths,  from  severe  inflammation,  as  ery- 
sipelas, or  any  exhausting  disease,  and  from  worry,  age,  or  hereditary 
weakness  in  the  parts.  So-called  "  hair-restorers  "  are  only  valuable  in  so 
far  as  they  stimulate  the  activity  of  the  scalp.  Some  of  them,  however, 
including  some  hair-dyes,  have  been  known  to  destroy  the  health  of  the 
hair,  to  injure  the  scalp,  and  to  impair  the  general  health.  A  too  fre- 
quent use  of  a  fine  comb  increases  the  activity  of  the  skin,  and  causes  the 
epidermis  to  throw  off  numerous  cells,  which,  combined  with  the  oil  of 
the  hair,  dirt,  etc.,  create  "dandruff"."  Frequent  brushing  with  a  good 
stiff  brush  strengthens  and  improves  the  hair  by  invigorating  the  scalp, 
and  increases  the  amount  of  sebaceous  material,  or  "natural  hair-oil." 
Most  people  have,  therefore,  in  their  power,  a  natural  ointment  which  is 
far  superior  to  pomades  and  artificial  hair-oils.  An  occasional  cleansing 
of  the  scalp  with  water  in  which  are  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  water,  fol- 
lowed by  an  application  of  a  small  amount  of  vaseline,  the  whole  being 
preceded  by  a  thorough  brushing,  is  far  better  than  the  use  of  oils  and 
grease,  which  may  be  of  doubtful  utility,  or  positively  harmful. 

P.  51,  §  78  (a.).     The  Relief  of  Thirst  through  the  Skin.—" It  has  been 
frequently  remarked  that  the  sensation  of  thirst  is  always  least  pressing 


APPENDIX    NOTES.  361 

in  a  moist  atmosphere,  and  that  it  may  be  appeased  to  a  certain  extent  by 
baths.  .  .  .  We  could  hardly  account  for  an  actual  alleviation  of  thirst 
by  immersion  of  the  body  in  water,  unless  we  assumed  that  a  certain 
quantity  of  water  had  been  absorbed.  A  striking  example  of  relief  of 
thirst  in  this  way  is  given  by  Capt.  Kennedy,  in  the  narrative  of  his 
sufferings  after  shipwreck,  when  he  and  his  man  were  exposed  for  a  long 
time  without  water,  in  an  open  boat.  With  regard  to  his  sufferings  from 
thirst,  he  says ;  '  I  cannot  conclude  without  making  mention  of  the  great 
advantage  I  derived  from  soaking  my  clothes  twice  a  day  in  salt  water, 
and  putting  them  on  without  wringing.  ...  So  very  great  advantage  did 
we  derive  from  this  practice,  that  the  violent  drought  went  off,  the  parched 
tongue  was  cured  in  a  few  minutes  after  bathing  and  washing  our  clothes ; 
at  the  same  time  we  found  ourselves  as  much  refreshed  as  if  we  had 
received  some  actual  nourishment.* "  —  Text-Book  of  Physiology.     Flint. 

P.  60,  §  94  (a.).  Sun  Baths  among  the  Ancients. —  "According  to 
Plutarch,  when  the  youthful  Alexander  visited  Diogenes  at  Corinth,  he 
found  the  famous  cynic  tranquilly  lying  in  the  sun.  The  warrior  affably 
saluted  the  philosopher,  and  asked  if  he  could  do  him  any  service.  *  pnly 
stand  a  little  out  of  my  sunshine,'  replied  Diogenes.  This  incident 
occurred  when  this  renowned  Athenian  had  reached  the  age  of  'three- 
score and  ten'  —  long  past  the  eccentric  days  of  his  life  in  a  tub,  and 
liis  daylight  lantern-searches  for  an  honest  man ;  and  there  is  good  reason 
to  suppose  that  he  really  valued  the  invigorating  solar  rays  more  than 
any  boon  Alexander  could  give.  Nor  was  he  alone  in  his  devotion  to 
sunshine,  for,  as  we  learn  from  Pliny,  it  was  a  common  practice  in  Greece 
for  old  men  to  recruit  their  energies,  both  mental  and  physical,  by 
exposing  themselves  naked  in  the  sun  —  a  fact  which  Hippocrates  might 
have  had  in  mind  when  he  wrote  •  *  Old  men  are  double  their  age  in  winter, 
and  younger  in  summer,'"  —  Dr.  C.  E.  Angell,  in  The  Sanitarian. 

P.  64,  §  102  (a.).  The  Use  of  Corsets  in  Early  Times.— "The  first 
mention  of  stays  that  I  have  ever  found  is  in  the  letters  of  dear  old 
Synesius,  Bishop  of  Cyrene,  on  the  Greek  coast  of  Africa,  about  four 
hundred  years  after  the  Christian  era.  He  tells  us  how,  when  he  was 
shipwrecked  on  &  remote  part  of  the  coast,  and  he  and  the  rest  of  the 
passengers  were  starving  on  cockles  and  limpets,  there  was  among  them 
a  slave  girl  out  of  the  far  East,  who  had  a  pinched  wasp-waist,  such  as 
you  may  see  on  the  old  Hindoo  sculptures,  and  such  as  you  may  see  in 
any  street  in  a  British  town.  And  when  the  Greek  ladies  of  the  neigh- 
borhood found  her  out,  they  sent  for  her  from  house  to  house,  to  behold, 
with  astonishment  and  laughter,  this  new  and  prodigious  waist,  with  which 
it  seemed  to  them  it  was  impossible  for  a  human  being  to  breathe  or  live ; 
and  they  petted  the  poor  girl,  and  fed  her,  as  they  might  a  dwarf  or  a 


362  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

giantess,  till  she  got  quite  fat  and  comfortable,  while  her  owners  had  not 
enough  to  eat.  So  strange  and  ridiculous  seemed  our  present  fashion  to 
the  descendants  of  those  who,  centuries  before,  had  imagined,  because  they 
had  seen  living  and  moving,  those  glorious  statues  which  we  pretend  to 
admire,  but  refuse  to  imitate/'  —  Health  and  Education.     Rev.  Charles 

KiNGSLEY. 

P.  65,  §  104  (a.).  Why  Improper  Shoes  are  Worn.—  "  It  is  amazing  the 
misery  the  people  of  civilization  endure  in  and  from  their  shoes.  Nobody 
is  ever,  as  they  should  be,  comfortable  at  once  in  them ;  they  hope,  in  the 
long  run,  and  after  much  agony,  and  when  they  are  nearly  done,  to  make 
them  fit,  especially  if  they  can  get  them  once  well  wet,  so  that  the  mighty 
knob  of  the  big  toe  may  adjust  himself,  and  be  at  ease.  For  my  part,  if  I 
were  rich,  I  would  advertise  for  a  clean,  wholesome  man,  whose  foot  was 
exactly  my  size,  and  I  would  make  him  wear  my  shoes  till  I  could  put 
them  on  and  not  know  I  was  in  them.  Frederick  the  Great  kept  an  aide- 
de-camp  for  this  purpose  ;  and,  poor  fellow,  he  sometimes  wore  them  too 
long,  and  got  a  kicking  for  his  pains.  Why  is  all  this  1  Why  do  you  see 
every  man's  and  woman's  feet  so  out  of  shape?  Why  are  there  corns,  with 
their  miseries  and  maledictions'?  Why  do  nails  grow  in,  and  sometimes 
have  to  be  torn  violently  off?  All  because  the  makers  and  users  of  shoes 
have  not  common  sense  and  common  reverence  for  God  and  his  works 
enough  to  study  the  shape  and  motions  of  that  wonderful  pivot  on  which 
we  turn  and  progress.  Because  Fashion  says  the  shoe  must  be  elegant, 
must  be  so  and  so,  and  the  beautiful  living  foot  must  be  crushed  into  it, 
and  human  nature  must  limp  along  Princes  Street,  and  through  life,  natty 
and  wretched."  —  Dii.  John  Bkown,  author  of  "  Rah  and  his  Friends." 

P.  70,  §  111  («.)•  Some  of  the  Risks  attending  the  Use  of  Unclean 
Clothing. —  "Unclean  clothing  is  sometimes  a  direct  means  of  convey- 
ance of  disease.  The  unclean  fabric  becomes  saturated  witli  poisonous 
substances,  with  the  fumes  of  tobacco,  for  instance,  and  holds  its  wearer 
in  a  persistent  atmosphere  charged  with  unwholesome  vapor.  Still 
more  seriously  it  becomes  the  medium  of  the  poisons  of  the  spreading 
diseases.  I  could  cull  from  my  note-books  many  examples  of  this 
last-named  danger,  but  must  be  satisfied  to  mention  one  or  two  striking 
and  brief  illustrative  facts.  I  have  known  scarlet  fever  carried  by  the 
clothing  of  a  nurse  into  a  healthy  family,  and  communicate  the  disease  to 
every  member  of  the  family.  I  have  known  cholera  to  be  communicated 
by  the  clothes  of  the  affected  person  to  the  women  engaged  in  washing- 
the  clothes.  I  have  known  small-pox  conveyed  by  clothes  that  had 
been  made  in  a  room  where  the  tailor  had^  by  his  side  sufferers  from  the 
terrible  malady.  I  have  seen  the  new  cloth,  out  of  which  was  to  come  the 
riding-habit  for  some  innocent  child  to  rejoice  in   as  slie  first  wore  it, 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  363 

undergo  the  preliminary  duty  of  forming  part  of  the  bedclothing  of 
another  child  stricken  down  with  fever.  Lastly,  I  have  known  scarlet  fever, 
small-pox,  typhus,  and  cholera,  communicated  by  clothing  contaminated 
in  the  laundry."  —  Diseases  of  Modern  Life.     B.  W.  Eichardson,  M.D. 

P.  87,  §  127  [a.].  Why  Tartar  Forms,  and  Why  Teeth  sometimes 
Decay  Readily.  —  The  temperature  of  the  mouth  is  about  100"^  Fahr. 
Its  secretions  should  be  alkaline;  but,  owing  to  the  heat  and  moisture 
in  the  mouth,  and  the  retention  of  particles  of  food  between  the  teeth, 
they  are  frequently  acid.  The  decomposed  food,  together  with  the  acid 
mucus,  dries  and  hardens  into  "tartar"  (so-called  because  of  its  re- 
semblance to  the  article  precipitated  from  wine  in  wine-casks),  a  con- 
cretion which,  if  not  removed,  pushes  its  way  towards  the  roots,  causing 
inflammation  of  the  gums,  and  decay  of  the  teeth.  The  pulp  cavity  is 
also  opened  up  through  cracking  of  the  enamel.  Non-digested  food  in 
the  stomach  or  small  intestine  sometimes  causes  the  secretions  of  the 
mouth  to  be  acid,  and  so  injurious  to  the  teeth.  Sudden  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  food  or  drink  affect  or  impair  the  enamel. 

P.  95,  §  138  (a.).  The  Importance  of  Thorough  Chewing  of  Food. 
—  The  value  of  insalivation  in  connection  with  mastication  is  appreciated 
when  we  consider  how  difficult  it  is  to  chew  dry  substances  like  crackers 
until  they  are  moistened.  It  is  also  almost  impossible  to  swallow  sub- 
stances which  are  very  dry.  The  value  of  a  thorough  comminution  of 
food,  in  making  it  more  soluble,  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  length 
of  time  it  takes  for  a  lump  of  sugar  to  dissolve,  with  that  consumed  by 
a  similar  lump  broken  into  fine  particles,  in  the  same  amount  of  water. 
Imperfect  chewing,  and  the  absence  of  good,  sound  teeth,  produce  many 
a  dyspeptic.  On  the  other  hand,  the  filling  of  teeth,  or  the  substitution 
of  a  good  artificial  set  for  teeth  which  are  worn  out  and  decayed,  has 
often  proved  to  the  dyspeptic  his  only  means  of  cure.  It  is  well  known 
to  veterinary  surgeons  that  horses  sometimes  lose  their  appetite  and 
strength  on  account  of  broken  or  irregularly  worn  teeth,  which  prevent 
them  from  chewing  their  food. 

Old  people  and  young  children  are  very  apt  to  bolt  their  food.  As 
they  do  not  chew  well,  their  food  should  be  thoroughly  minced  for  them. 

P.  97,  §  143  (a.).  Time  occupied  in  the  Digestion  of  Various  Articles 
of  Food.  — In  1822,  Alexis  St.  Martin,  eighteen  years  of  age,  a  voijageur  in 
the  employ  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  was  wounded  in  the  left  side, 
the  ball  perforating  the  stomach.  Through  an  opening  which  did  not  heal 
entirely  for  a  number  of  years,  Dr.  Beaumont  of  the  U.  S.  Army  was  ena- 
bled to  watch  the  digestion  of  foods  in  the  stomach.  The  following  extract 
from  a  table  prepared  by  Dr.  Beaumont  shows  the  digestibility  of  various 
foods.     The  estimates  may  be  considered  as  approximative  only  as  to  the 


364 


APPENDIX  NOTES. 


generality  of  people,  being  founded  upon  an  isolated  case ;  still,  experi 
ments  have  been  made  upon  animals  which  tend  to  confirm  those  made 
upon  St.  Martin, 


Hours.  Min 


Pigs'  feet,  soused  (boiled) 
Tripe,  soused  (boiled)     . 
Soup,  barley  (boiled)  .    . 
Trout,  Salmon,  fresh  (fried 
Venison  steak  (broiled)  .    , 

Milk  (boiled) , 

Cabbage,  with  vinegar  (raw 
Eggs,  fresh  (raw)    .    .    . 
Apples,  sour,  mellow  (raw 

Milk  (raw) 

Turkey  (roasted)  .  .  . 
Eggs,  fresh  (soft  boiled)  . 
Beefsteak  (broiled)  .  . 
Mutton,  fresh  (boiled)  . 
Soup,  chicken  (boiled)  , 
Bread,  corn  (baked)  .  . 
Oysters,  fresh  (roasted)  . 


Hours.  Miu 

Mutton  (roasted) 3     15 

Eggs  (hard  boiled) 3     30 

Eggs  (fried) 3     30 

Potatoes,  Irish  (boiled)    ....  3 

Oj'sters  (stewed) 3 

Beets  (boiled) 3 

Green  corn  and  beans  (boiled)     .  3 

Salmon  (boiled) 4 

Soup,  beef,  vegetables,  and  bread 

(boiled) 4 

Duck,  barn-yard  (roasted)  ...  4 

Heart,  animal  (fried) 4 

Pork,  salt  (fried) 4 

Veal  (fried) 4 

Cabbage  (boiled) 4 

Duck,  wild  (roasted) 4 

Pork,  fresh  (roasted)  .....  5 


15 


P.  105,  §  152  (a.).  Relief  of  Constipation.  —In  view  of  the  fact  that 
constipation  or  a  sluggish  condition  of  the  bowels  is  very  common,  it  has 
been  repeatedly  urged  by  instructors  that  books  upon  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  ought  to  give  some  hints  for  its  relief.  The  following  will 
neither  answer  for  all  persons,  nor  always  take  the  place  of  medicinal 
measures,  which  should  come  from  the  attendmg  physician:  1st.  Daily 
muscular  exercise,  especially  walking,  if  not  carried  beyond  the  strength 
of  the  individual.  Too  much  exercise  may  aggravate  the  trouble.  2d. 
A  cold  bath  before  breakfast  for  those  who  can  stand  it.  3d.  Moist  com- 
presses {i.e.,  several  thicknesses  of  cloth)  applied  for  two  or  three  hours 
daily  over  the  abdomen.  4th.  Daily  kneading  of  the  bowels,  especially  in 
the  course  of  the  large  intestine.  5th.  A  glass  of  hot  or  cold  water  before 
breakfast,  or  water  in  which  a  few  cloves  have  remained  over  night,  or  in 
which  there  is  just  enough  salt  to  give  a  slight  saline  taste.  6th.  Fruit; 
oranges,  apples,  bananas,  or  grapes,  before  or  at  breakfast ;  figs,  dates,  and 
other  similar  fruits  throughout  the  day,  i.e.,  in  small  quantity,  or  stewed 
fruit  for  supper,  or  a  baked  apple  before  retiring.  7th.  Oatmeal,  Indian 
meal,  Graham  bread  and  Graham  crackers,  sardines,  coffee  (and  with  some 
persons,  tea),  molasses,  and  molasses  cake,  zwieback,  etc. 

While  the  above  measures,  used  with  discrimination,  are  of  value,  it  is 
but  right  to  state  that  many  persons,  especially  those  who  take  but  little 
exercise,  are  liable  to  carry  the  hygienic  treatment  to  extremes,  and  to 
injure  their  digestive  organs  by  much  indigestible  food. 

P.  107,  §  157  [a.].  The  Effects  of  too  much  Animal  Food. — "Domi- 
nie Sampson  was  another  man  after  Meg  Merriles  had  compelled  him 
to  eat  some  of  the  contents  of  her  stew-pot;   and  Liebig  compares  the 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  365 

mental  attitude  of  three  persons,  —  one  of  whom  has  had  a  substantial 
meal  of  meat,  a  second  who  has  dined  on  fish,  and  the  third  who  has  had 
some  bread  and  an  onion.  The  beef  of  the  British  warrior  has  always 
been  counted  as  an  element  in  his  bravery.  There  are,  then,  two  very 
potent  reasons  why  we  eat  too  much  albuminous  food ;  one,  because  it  is 
pleasant  to  eat,  and  another,  because  it  produces  an  agreeable  mental  con- 
dition. But  when  we  have  too  much  of  a  good  thing,  and  the  blood  is  sur- 
charged with  waste,  then  the  mental  attitude  is  unpleasantly  affected; 
there  is  the  irascibility  of  gout,  which  is  not  merely  the  effect  of  pain ;  and 
the  melancholy  of  biliousness."  —  Food  for  the  Invalid.  Fothergill  and 
Wood. 

P.  108,  §  158  (a.).    Methods  of  preserving  Food  for  Transportation.  — 

The  value  of  proper  canning,  and  of  other  methods  of  preserving  food,  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  detailed  instructions  as  to  provisions,  given  by  the 
Navy  Department  to  the  Commander  of  the  Greely  Relief  Expedition  in 
the  spring  of  the  present  year  (1884).  Macaroni  and  vermicelli,  bacon, 
preserved  cranberries,  etc.,  are  to  be  packed  in  air-tight  wooden  kegs ; 
marrow  beans,  dried  green  peas,  dried  Lima  beans,  sweet  corn,  pork,  salt 
beef,  etc.,  in  well-seasoned  tight  half-barrels;  baking-powder,  compressed 
vegetables,  mince-meat,  evaporated  fruit,  fried  potatoes,  roast  chicken  and 
turkey,  head  cheese,  sausages,  apple  and  peach  butter,  candied  lemon-peel, 
figs,  tamarinds,  cooked  corn,  beef,  preserved  beef  and  mutton,  oysters  raw 
and  fried,  sardines,  butter,  etc.,  in  hermetically  sealed  tins;  smoked  and 
dried  meats  well  covered  with  canvas.  Fried  oysters,  and  eggs  (boiled  20 
minutes),  are  to  be  put  into  cans  and  covered  with  hot  lard.  "The  special 
mackerel  and  special  salmon  shall  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  warranted  to 
keep  two  years." 

Dangers  arising  from  Improper  Canning  of  Food.  —  The  following  is 
a  summary  of  a  paper  read  by  Dr.  J.  G.  Johnson  before  the  New  York 
Medico-Legal  Society,  Feb.  9,  1884,  on  Canned  Goods  —  the  Dangers  to 
which  Consumers  are  Exposed :  — 

"  In  the  canning  of  food,  the  can  is  filled,  and  placed  in  boiling  water 
while  the  cap  is  soldered  on,  a  hole  having  been  punched  in  it,  through 
which  the  air  escapes.  After  which,  the  hole  is  soldered  up.  If  the  pro- 
cess has  been  properly  performed,  when  the  can  becomes  cold,  the  heads 
sink  in  and  remain  sunken.  If  decomposition  begins,  the  gases  which 
form  cause  the  heads  to  bulge.  To  the  trade,  such  cans  are  known  as 
'  swells.'  It  has  been  a  trick  of  unscrupulous  dealers  to  buy  the  *  swells,' 
punch  a  second  hole,  and  heat  the  contents  a  second  time.  This  process 
is  known  as  'reprocessing/  and  has  been  repeated  in  certain  instances 
four  times.  While  food  from  such  cans  is  unfit  to  eat,  a  method  some- 
times employed  of  sealing  cans  affords  greater  danger.  It  is  much  greater, 
'because  it  involves  a  most  deadly  corrosive  poison,  the  most  deadly 


366  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

known  to  science,  muriate  of  zinc'  There  are  three  amalgams  that  may 
be  used  in  sealing  up  cans  with  solder.  They  are  resin,  oil,  and  muriate 
of  zinc.  The  two  former  are  harmless,  but  comparatively  slow ;  the  latter 
is  faster,  but  fraught  with  danger.  .  .  .  Muriate  of  zinc  is  zinc  dissolved  in 
muriatic  acid,  and  the  amalgam  contains  as  much  of  the  metal  as  the  acid 
will  accept.  It  is  laid  in  a  groove  on  the  top  of  the  can  by  boys  with 
brushes ;  the  cap  is  placed  over  it,  and  a  very  hot  iron  is  applied  to  melt 
the  amalgam.  The  zinc  holds  the  cap;  the  acid  may  —  practically  must 
—  drop  into  the  preserve.  Or  the  careless  boy  may  overdo  the  ai)plication 
and  drop  some  of  it  into  the  tin.  The  contents  then  become  poisonous  in 
the  highest  degree.  The  fact  is  so  well  known,  that  in  the  State  of  Marj-- 
land,  where  canning  is  a  staple  industry,  the  use  of  muriatic  solder  is  for- 
bidden by  law.  .  .  .  The  intelligent  purchaser  will  not  buy  a  can  of  goods 
in  which  the  brown  streak  of  resin  is  not  visible  at  the  soldering  point. 
To  deceive  him,  it  is  alleged  the  canners  have  adopted  the  habit  of  '  bronz- 
ing' the  tops  of  cans  to  conceal  the  absence  of  the  resin  stain.  It  is  fair 
to  infer  that  bronzed  cans  are  soldered  with  muriate  of  zinc  amalgam." 
The  paper  concludes  with  the  following  suggestions:  — 
"  Every  cap  should  be  examined,  and,  if  two  holes  are  found  in  it,  send 
it  at  once  to  the  Health  Board,  with  the  contents  and  the  name  of  the 
grocer  who  sold  it  Reject  every  article  of  canned  food  that  does  not 
show  the  line  of  resin  around  the  edge  of  the  solder  on  the  cap,  the  same 
as  is  seen  on  the  seam  at  the  side  of  the  can  '  Standard,' or  first-class 
goods,  have  not  only  the  name  of  the  factory,  but  also  that  of  the  whole- 
sale house  which  sells  them,  on  the  label.  *  Seconds/  or  doubtful  or  *  re- 
processed '  goods,  have  a  *  stock  label  *  of  some  mythical  canning  house, 
but  do  not  have  the  name  of  any  wholesale  grocer  on  them.  Reject  all 
goods  that  do  not  have  the  name  of  the  factory,  and  also  the  name  of 
some  wholesale  firm,  on  the  label.  A  '  swell,"  or  decomposing  can  of 
goods,  can  always  be  detected  by  pressing  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  A 
sound  can  pressed  will  give  a  solid  feel.  When  gas  from  tlie  decomposi- 
tion of  the  food  is  inside  the  can,  the  tin  will  rattle  by  pressing  up  the 
bottom  as  you  displace  the  gas  in  the  can.  Reject  every  can  that  shows 
any  rust  around  the  cap  on  the  inside  of  the  head  of  the  can.  If  house- 
wives are  educated  to  these  points,  then  muriate  of  zinc  amalgam  will  be- 
come a  thing  of  the  past,  and  dealers  in  '  swells '  have  to  seek  some  other 
occupation." 

P.  110,  §  161  fa.).  Use  of  Fat  in  Cold  Climates.  —  The  accounts 
given  by  travellers  of  the  amount  of  food,  and  especially  of  fat,  eaten 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  frigid  zone,  are  almost  incredible.  The  Russian 
Admiral,  Saritcheff,  tells  of  a  man  who  ate  in  his  presence,  at  a  single 
meal,  twenty-eight  pounds  of  boiled  rice  and  butter.  "  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin  tried   how  much  fat  an   Esquimaux   boy   could   consume :    fourteen 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  367 

pounds  of  tallow  candles  quickly  disappeared;  and  Sir  John  closed  the 
experiment  with  a  piece  of  fat  pork,  as  he  began  to  feel  apprehensive  for 
his  stores.  Oil  is  a  luxury  greedily  devoured  by  the  northern  races,  as 
was  amusingly  proven  in  a  seaport  town  some  years  ago.  The  town  was 
lighted  by  oil  lamps,  and  the  inhabitants  remarked  that  they  went  out  for 
several  successive  nights;  at  last  it  was  discovered  that  some  Russian 
sailors  in  the  harbor  climbed  the  lamp-posts  and  drank  the  oil."  —  Lectures 
on  Public  Health.     Mapother. 

V.  110,  §  161  [h.).  Use  of  Fat  in  Hot  Climates.  —"Consider  how 
olive-oil  is  used  in  the  warm  parts  of  Europe,  and  how  ghee  is  used 
in  India,  in  order  to  satisfy  yourself  that  oily  matter  may  be  taken  with 
facility  in  hot  countries  as  well  as  in  cold.  You  hear  nothing  about 
indigestion ;  you  find  that  a  bad  olive  harvest  or  a  scant  supply  of  ghee  is 
a  great  national  calamity.  A  Hindoo  servant  of  a  friend  who  kept  up  his 
Indian  habits  of  eating  in  London,  has  often  told  me  that  nothing  would 
make  up  for  a  deficiency  of  ghee  or  butter,  and  that  this  was  the  common 
experience  of  his  countrymen  at  home  or  away  from  home.  He  looked 
upon  a  sip  of  ghee  in  very  much  the  same  light  as  that  in  which  his  fellow- 
servants  looked  upon  a  draught  of  beer.  *  Wine  is  good,  but  oil  is  better, 
said  a  peasant  to  the  courier  who  was  with  me  in  Andalusia ;  and  after 
gulping  down  a  large  mouthful  of  olive-oil,  and  smacking  his  lips  more 
than  once,  the  expression  of  his  countenance  was  an  apt  illustration  of  the 
meaning  of  the  Scriptural  text  which  speaks  of  oil  as  making  '  the  face  to 
shine.'  Indeed,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  oil  may  be  used  in  large 
quantities  throughout  the  year  in  the  hot  olive-growing  countries  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  not  only  without  making  people  bilious,  but  with  unmis- 
takable benefit."  —  London  Practitioner.  "  A  Few  Words  About  Eatables." 
C.  R.  Radcliff,  M.T). 

P.  114,  §  169  (a.).  Fasting.  —  "Without  something  to  eat  or  drink, 
man  will  not  live  beyond  a  few  days,  or  at  most  a  week.  Access  to  water, 
however,  makes  a  great  difference.  There  is  a  well-known  case  of  an 
Ayrshire  miner  who  lived  twenty-three  days,  buried  in  a  coal  mine,  with- 
out swallowing  anything  but  small  quantities  of  chalybeate  water  sucked 
through  a  straw.  He  had  the  advantage  of  being  shut  up  in  a  contami- 
nated atmosphere,  which,  by  diminishing  nervous  sensibility,  lessened  the 
cravings  of  hunger.  Berard  quotes  the  example  of  a  convict  who  died  of 
starvation  after  sixty-three  days,  but  in  this  case  water  was  taken.  Cases 
of  alleged  fasting  longer  than  this  are  certainly  due  to  exposure.  The 
insane  appear  to  bear  fasting  better  than  those  in  their  sober  senses ;  and, 
in  some  morbid  conditions  of  the  body,  nourishment  may  certainly  be 
done  without  for  a  surprising  length  of  time.  Animals  have  an  advantage 
over  man,  so  far  as  living  without  food  is  concerned." — CasseU's  Maga- 
zine. 


368 


APPENDIX   NOTES. 


P.  115,  §  171  (a.).  Salt;  its  Importance.  —"Animals  will  travel  long 
distances  to  obtain  salt ;  men  will  barter  gold  for  it ;  indeed,  among  tlie 
Gallas  and  on  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  brothers  will  sell  their  sisters, 
husbands  their  wives,  and  parents  their  children,  for  salt.  In  the  district 
of  Accra,  on  the  gold  coast  of  Africa,  a  handful  of  salt  is  the  most 
valuable  thing  upon  earth  after  gold,  and  will  purchase  a  slave  or 
two.  Mungo  Park  tells  us  that  with  the  Mandingoes  and  Bambaras 
the  use  of  salt  is  such  a  luxury  that  to  say  of  a  man,  '  he  flavors  his 
food  with  salt,'  it  is  to  imply  that  he  is  rich ;  and  children  will  suck  a  piece 
of  rock-salt  as  if  it  were  sugar.  No  stronger  mark  of  respect  or  affection 
can  be  shown  in  Muscovy,  than  the  sending  of  salt  from  the  tables  of  the 
rich  to  their  poorer  friends.  In  the  Book  of  Leviticus  it  is  expressly  com- 
manded as  one  of  the  ordinances  of  Moses,  that  every  oblation  of  meat 
upon  the  altar  shall  be  seasoned  with  salt,  without  lacking ;  and  hence  it 
is  called  the  Salt  of  the  Covenant  of  God.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also 
used  salt  in  their  sacrificial  cakes ;  and  it  is  still  used  in  the  services  of  the 
Latin  church  —  the  '  parva  mica,'  or  pinch  of  salt,  being,  in  the  ceremony 
of  baptism,  put  into  the  child's  mouth,  while  the  priest  says,  'Receive  the 
salt  of  wisdom,  and  may  it  be  a  propitiation  to  thee  for  eternal  life.' 
Everywhere,  and  almost  always,  indeed,  it  has  been  regarded  as  emblemat- 
ical of  wisdom,  wit,  and  immortality.  To  taste  a  man's  salt,  was  to  be 
bound  by  the  rites  of  hospitality ;  and  no  oath  was  more  solemn  than  that 
which  was  sworn  upon  bread  and  salt.  To  sprinkle  the  meat  with  salt  was 
to  drive  away  the  devil ;  and  to  this  day  nothing  is  more  unlucky  than  to 
spill  the  salt."  —  On  Food.     Letheby. 

P.  120,  §  178  (a.).  The  Amount  of  Nitrogen  and  Carbon  in  Various 
Articles  of  Food.  —  Table  adapted  to  this  book,  from  a  chart  by  Charles 
Ekin,  F.C.S.,  giving  the  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  in  different  arti- 
cles of  food  in  common  use. 


N.  c. 

Gelatine  and  Isinglass    .     .    .  18.0  50.0 

Cheese 4.5  37.8 

Lean  Meat 3.7  13.2 

Lentils 3.7  37.3 

Peas 3.5  33.7 

Haricot  Beans 3.5  38.0 

Butcher's  Meat  (free  from  bone)  3.3  23.2 

Pork  (fresh) 2.8  22.0 

Egg 2.4  16.6 

Fish  (fresh) 2.4  9.6 

Oatmeal 2.2  35.0 

Flour 2.1  39.2 

Barley  Meal 2.0  40.5 

Rye 2.0  38.3 

1.5  23.9 


Cocoa  Nibs 1.4  68.5 

Bacon  (dried) 1.3  54.0 

Rice 0.8  36.0 

Milk 0.7  6.8 

Parsnip 0.3  8.6 

Cabbage 0.3  2.6 

Potato 0.2  11.1 

Turnip 0.2  5.2 

Carrot 0.2  5.4 

Butter 0.2  68.0 

Suet  and  Fat 0.0  79.0 

Loaf  Sugar 0.0  42.5 

Arrowroot 0.0  42.8 

Apples 0,0  5.8 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  369 

P.  120,  §  178  (b.).  The  Daily  Ration  of  Food.  —The  estimates  of  the 
necessary  quantity  of  food  given  in  the  text  are  those  of  the  physiologist 
Moleschott,  and  are  somewhat  different  from  those  given  by  Dalton,  who 
says  that  the  daily  ration  for  a  healthy  man,  taking  free  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  and  living  exclusively  on  bread,  fresh  meat,  and  butter,  with 
coffee  and  water  for  drink,  is 

Meat  .    .    .    .  16  oz.        or  1.00  lb.  avoirdupois. 

Bread     ...  19  oz.         «  1.19  " 

Butter  or  Fat  .  3^  oz.         "  0.22  "  " 

Water     .    .    .  52  fl.  oz.    "  3.38  "  «« 

The  daily  ration  of  the  United  States  soldier  is  a  liberal  one,  80  much 
so  that  "company  funds"  during  the  late  war  were  enriched  by  money 
allowed  for  the  surplus  retained.     It  is  as  follows ;  — 

Bread  or  Flour 22  oz. 

Fresh  or  Salt  Beef  (or  Pork  or  Bacon,  12  oz.)    20  oz. 

Potatoes  (three  times  a  week) 16  oz. 

Rice 1.6  oz. 

Coffee  (or  Tea,  0.24  oz.) 1.6  oz. 

Sugar 2.4  oz. 

Beans 0.64  gill. 

Vinegar 0.32  gill. 

Salt 0.16  gill. 

P.  121,  §  180  (a.).  Fresh  Meat  as  a  Preventive  of  Scurvy.  ^Dt. 
T.  J.  Turner,  Medical  Director,  U.  S.  Navy,  in  an  article  in  The  Sani- 
tarian, April,  1884,  shows  that  an  ample  supply  of  fresh  meat,  i.e.,  from 
animals  killed  on  the  spot,  such  as  the  walrus  and  narwhal,  is  superior  to 
any  form  of  preserved  meat  in  the  prevention  of  scurvy,  in  that  it  fur- 
nishes the  necessary  salts  and  acid  (probably  lactic  acid).  In  fact,  he 
speaks  of  fresh  raw  animal  food  as  the  best  anti-scorbutic.  Where  it 
cannot  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity,  he  suggests  that  a  mixture  of 
sodium,  potassium,  and  calcium  phosphates  be  added  to  preserved  and 
cooked  meats  or  other  foods,  and  that  lactic  acid  be  added  to  the  vinegar 
used  as  a  condiment. 

P.  123,  §  185  (a.).  Importance  of  Knowledge  as  to  Economical  as  well 
as  Nutritious  Food.  —  "  In  this  country,  at  the  present  time,  the  masses  do 
not  understand  how  and  where  to  buy  very  nutritious  foods  for  the  least 
money.  Personal  instruction,  cheap  cookery  books,  health  primers,  and 
tracts,  are  not  as  common  in  this  country  as  in  some  others ;  in  England, 
for  example.  By  such  means,  the  laboring  classes,  whose  peculiar  demand 
for  cheap  and  wholesome  food  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  philanthropist 
as  far  as  possible  to  satisfy,  are  taught  how  articles,  which,  because  coarse 
and  regarded  as  unwholesome,  are  very  cheap,  can  be  converted  by  the 
culinary  art  into  savory  and  healthful  dishes.    By  the  circulation  of  health 


370  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

treatises,  they  learn,  also,  that  the  actual  food  wants  of  man  are  small, 
and  what  those  wants  are,  and  what  foods  will  best  supply  them.  Having 
thus  been  taught  the  true  physiological  needs,  and  when  and  how  to  pro- 
cure their  food,  the  children  of  toil  will  be  blessed  with  knowledge  that 
will  bring  comfort  and  health  to  their  homes,  and  preserve  the  life  of  the 
struggling  father  to  his  family  and  their  lives  to  him." 

How  Good  Cooking  Pays.  — "  Foul  air  and  overcrowding  would,  how- 
ever, be  less  fatal  in  its  results  were  food  understood.  The  well-filled 
stomach  gives  strange  powers  of  resistance  to  the  body.  .  .  .  Happily,  to 
know  an  evil  is  to  have  taken  the  first  step  in  its  eradication.  ...  To 
have  made  cooking  and  industrial  training  the  fashion,  is  to  have  cleared 
away  the  thorny  underbrush  on  that  debatable  ground,  the  best  education 
of  the  poor.  .  .  .  That  cooking  schools  and  the  knowledge  of  cheap  and 
savory  preparation  of  food  must  soon  have  their  effect  on  the  percentage 
of  drunkards  no  one  can  question.  Philanthropists  may  urge  what  re- 
forms they  will  —  less  crowding,  purer  air,  better  sanitary  regulations  — 
but  this  question  of  food  underlies  all.  The  knowledge  that  is  broad 
enough  to  insure  good  food,  is  broad  enough  to  mean  better  living  in  all 
ways.  .  .  .  One  woman,  who  has  learned  in  any  degree  to  order  her  own 
home  and  life  aright,  will  be  more  a  power  with  those  among  whom  that 
life  passes  than  a  dozen  average  preachers."  —  How  to  Help  the  Poor. 
Mrs.  James  T.  Field. 

P.  123,  §  186  (a.).  The  High  Calling  of  a  Good  CooA-.  —"Bad  cook- 
ing is  the  rule,  good  cooking  the  exception.  The  truly  artistic  cook 
—  the  veritable  cordon  bleu  —  is  a  rare  bird  with  us.  The  calling  of 
a  man  cook  ranks  a  little  above  that  of  the  waiter-man ;  it  is,  perhaps, 
nearly  up  to  that  of  a  first-rate  barber  or  hair-dresser.  Almost  inva- 
riably the  professional  male  cook  is  an  exotic  production,  —  generally 
imported  from  France,  —  the  calling  being  beneath  the  dignity  of  a  native 
American  not  of  African  descent.  A  hired  woman  cook  holds  her  head 
somewhat  higher  than  the  waitress  and  laundress,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  her  superior  rank,  as  from  certain  advantages  of  her  position.  The 
responsibility  of  cooking,  however,  in  small  households,  either  rests  with 
a  maid  of  all  work,  or  it  is  assumed  by  the  mistress,  whose  qualifications 
are  derived  from  perhaps  a  little  experience,  the  possession  of  some  family 
receipts,  and,  possibly,  a  cook-book.  I  shall  not  linger  on  this  topic,  but 
leave  it  with  a  few  assertions.  If  alimentation  have  the  importance 
and  dignity  which  I  have  claimed  for  it ;  if  appetite  and  taste  are  to  be 
estimated  by  their  physiological  relations,  the  functions  of  a  cook  are  of  a 
higher  grade  than  that  denoted  by  the  facts  just  stated.  A  skilful  cook, 
male  or  female,  is  entitled  to  as  much  distinction,  at  least,  as  a  clever 
mechanic.    The  calling  should  be  reckoned  an  honorable  one.    The  science 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  871 

and  the  art  of  cooking  should  he  taught  hy  competent  professors,  and  should 
be  embraced  in  the  curriculum  of  female  schools.  More  than  this,  here  is 
a  field  for  discoveries,  inventions,  and  continued  progress.  To  devise  new 
combinations  and  culinary  processes  is  a  worthy  object  of  study  and 
experiment.  He  who  may  originate  a  new  article  of  diet,  palatable,  digest- 
ible, and  nutritious,  by  utilizing  materials  which  are  readily  available, 
deserves  something  of  the  credit  belonging  to  one  who  makes  two  blades 
of  grass  grow  where  but  one  grew  before."  —  Food  in  its  Relations  to  Per- 
sonal and  Public  Health,  a  paper  read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Public  Health  Association,  1876,  by  Austin  Flint,  M.D. 

P.  128,  Note  1  (a.).  How  to  Utilize  Remnants  of  Food.  —"Nothing 
so  well  symbolizes  the  economical  habits  of  continental  Europe,  and 
especially  France,  as  the  pot  an  feu.  This  is  an  iron  pot  kept  constantly 
simmering  upon  the  fire,  into  which  is  put  from  day  to  day  all  the  whole- 
some remnants  of  food  which  in  this  country  are  thrown  away.  Our 
people,  in  their  magnificent  way  of  doing  things,  never  stop  to  consider 
how  much  nutriment  adheres  even  to  well-picked  bones  of  porter-house 
steaks,  mutton-chops,  ribs  of  beef,  legs  of  mutton,  etc.  All  these,  and 
many  things  besides,  are  put  into  the  pot  au  feu ;  water,  seasoning,  and 
fragrant  herbs  are  added  as  required,  and  the  constant  simmering,  —  a  sol- 
vent for  even  the  toughest  of  Texan  beef,  —  extracts  every  particle  of 
marrow  even,  and  the  bones  come  out  as  clean  and  white  as  if  they  had 
been  bleached  in  the  sun.  Among  the  common  people,  more  than  half  of 
the  nutriment  of  the  day  comes  from  pot  au  feu,  and  if  any  member  of  the 
family  comes  home  at  an  unusual  hour  hungry,  it  affords  at  all  times  a 
meal  at  once  warm  and  wholesome.  This  explains  how,  as  Hugh  McCul- 
loch  tells  us,  the  40,000,000  of  France  could  live  on  what  the  40,000,000  of 
America  throw  away ;  and  when  we  consider  the  wretched  cookery  that 
prevails  in  this  country,  it  is  not  too  much  to  affirm  that  they  live  twice  as 
well  as  do  our  farmers  and  day-laborers."  —  Lancaster  Farmer. 

P.  129,  §  188  («.).  The  too  Frequent  Use  of  Meat  and  Meat  Extracts.  — 
Undoubtedly,  meat  is  too  frequently  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other  foods. 
For  children,  meat  once  a  day  is  sufficient.  The  recent  report  of  Dr.  D.  M. 
Camman,  Physician  to  the  Orphans'  Home  and  Asylum  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  ChurA^New  York  City,  in  the  N.Y.  Medical  Journal,  March 
29,  1884,  shows  that  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  the  children  in  that 
institution  under  eight  years  of  age  have  received  no  meat,  but  in  place  of 
it  an  abundance  of  milk,  yet  the  health  of  the  children  has  been  unusually 
good.  The  eating  of  meat  three  times  a  day,  except  by  persons  who  do 
very  hard  physical  work,  is  to  tax  the  eliminating  organs.  The  effects  of 
too  much  meat  combined  with  too  little  exercise  are  frequently  manifested 
in  the  "biliousness,"  headache,  gout,  etc.,  which  befall  persons  who  "live 


372  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

high."  Few  people  need  meat,  ordinarily,  more  than  twice  a  day,  and  in 
summer  more  than  once  a  day.  The  sick  are  often  inclined  to  consider 
meat,  or  meat  teas,  soups,  and  broths,  as  the  most  nutritious  foods  they  can 
take,  and  hence  sometimes  delay  their  recovery  by  overtaxing  the  liver 
and  kidneys. 

P.  129,  §  188  {b.).  The  Adaptation  of  Food  to  the  Digestive  Powers.  — 
"  Nature  has  provided  for  the  young  of  the  mammalia,  in  milk,  food  con- 
taining all  the  elements  of  nutrition  in  a  semi-prepared  state,  which  only 
requires  a  very  short  time  for  its  thorough  transformation  into  chyle. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  all  oviparous  animals,  for  they  live  on  the  con- 
tents of  the  egg  in  the  early  stage  of  their  existence.  Nature  has  evidently 
wished  to  spare  the  delicate  organs  of  the  young,  in  the  earliest  period  of 
life,  the  labor  which  they  are  destined  later  in  life  to  undergo,  in  the  elab- 
oration of  their  food. 

"  The  stomach  of  the  strong  man,  of  the  navvy,  of  the  drayman,  may  be 
compared  to  a  quartz-crushing  machine.  It  wants  quartz,  that  is,  strong, 
coarse  foods,  bread,  bacon,  pork,  beef,  to  work  upon,  to  crush.  To  give  it 
eggs  and  milk  would  be  like  putting  trifle  or  blanc-mange  into  the  quartz- 
crushing  machine ;  it  would  merely  put  it  out  of  gear.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  child,  the  delicate  woman,  the  dyspeptic,  the  invalid,  have  stomachs 
that  may  be  compared  to  a  light  chocolate-crushing  machine.  Quartz 
they  cannot  crush,  and  the  attempt  would  ruin  the  machine,  although  it 
may  be  perfectly  equal  to  crushing  light  things,  such  as  chocolate,  eggs, 
etc.  In  sickness  and  in  deranged  health  the  digestive  organs  lose  their 
tone  and  powers,  and  should  be  treated  as  Nature  treats  the  young ;  that 
is,  the  kind  of  nitrogenous  food  should  be  given  which  entails  the  least 
work  on  the  part  of  the  stomach.  It  is  weakened,  its  muscular  and 
secreting  powers  are  diminished,  and  it  no  longer  requires  for  its  health 
many  hours  of  rude  exercise  daily."  —  Nutrition  in  Health  and  Disease. 
Bennett. 

P.  129,  §  190  (a.).  The  Relative  Value  of  Various  Meats.— An  in- 
quiry among  various  charitable  institutions  shows  that  beef  is  relished 
best,  and  in  the  form  of  stews ;  next,  mutton  and  pork ;  then  fish,  espe- 
cially in  the  form  of  chowder.  Of  late  years,  considerable  has  been  said 
against  the  use  of  pork,  and  undoubtedly  much  of  the  pork  sold  to 
and  used  by  the  poor  is  unfit  to  eat.  But  if  pigs  are  fed  largely  upon 
corn,  and  are  kept  well  cleansed  and  housed,  they  yield  healthy  pork. 
The  flesh  of  all  animals  is  affected  by  transportation  in  badly  ventilated 
cars,  and  even  the  method  of  killing  influences  the  quality  of  the  meat. 
Fish,  for  instance,  is  said  to  be  more  palatable  and  nutritious  if  killed 
immediately  after  being  caught,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  die  slowly. 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  373 

P.  130,  §  192  (a.).  The  Amount  of  Albuminoids  does  not  Determine 
t/ie  Nutritious  Value  of  Foods.  — We  have  before  pointed  out  that  the 
relative  amount  of  albuminoids  in  foods  does  not  determine  as  to  the 
digestibility  and  nutritious  value  of  the  foods  in  question.  This  is  as  true 
in  regard  to  fish  as  to  other  articles.  "  What  is  in  general  the  proper 
proportion  in  which  food  constituents  should  be  taken  is  not  easily  ascer- 
tained and  has  been  variously  stated.  And  in  the  case  of  each  individual 
it  undergoes  continual  modification.  No  one  knows  this  better  than  the 
poor  dyspeptic,  who,  having  largely  destroyed  by  his  irregularities  the 
guiding  instinct  of  a  healthy  appetite,  is  compelled  to  study  most  carefully 
what  food  he  may  venture  to  take  and  what  he  must  avoid." 

P.  130,  §  193  (a.).  Raw  Oysters.  — "'Our  practice  in  regard  to  the 
oyster  is  exceptional,  and  furnishes  a  striking  example  of  the  general  cor- 
rectness of  the  popular  judgment  on  dietetic  questions.  The  oyster  is 
almost  the  only  animal  substance  which  we  eat  habitually  and  by  pref- 
erence in  the  raw  or  uncooked  state;  and  it  is  interesting  to  know 
that  there  is  a  sound  physiological  reason  at  the  bottom  of  this  pref- 
erence. The  fawn-colored  mass  which  constitutes  the  dainty  of  the 
oyster  is  its  liver,  and  this  is  little  less  than  a  mass  of  glycogen  ;  as- 
sociated with  the  glycogen,  but  withheld  from  actual  contact  with  it 
during  life,  is  its  appropriate  digestive  ferment  —  the  hepatic  diastase. 
The  mere  crushing  of  the  dainty  between  the  teeth  brings  these  two  bodies 
together,  and  the  glycogen  is  at  once  digested,  without  other  help,  by  its 
own  diastase.  The  oyster,  in  the  uncooked  state,  or  merely  warmed,  is,  in 
fact,  self-digestive.  But  the  advantage  of  this  provision  is  wholly  lost  by 
cooking,  for  the  heat  employed  immediately  destroys  the  associated  fer- 
ment, and  a  cooked  oyster  has  to  be  digested,  like  any  other  food,  by  the 
eater's  own  digestive  power.'  This  graphic  description  by  Dr.  Roberts 
tells  us  how  it  is  that  oysters  au  nature!  are  so  much  in  vogue  for  invalids, 
as  they  deservedly  are.  Also,  why  oysters  should  not  be  cooked  in  oyster 
sauce,  but  put  into  the  prepared  sauce  just  as  it  comes  to  table.  Why,  as 
King  Chambers  insists,  in  a  beef-steak  pudding,  the  oysters  should  not  be 
cooked,  but  a  flap  of  the  paste  raised,  and  the  oysters  popped  in,  just  as 
the  pudding  is  served.  In  making  oyster  pate's,  the  paste  is  cooked  in 
bread-crumbs,  which  is  then  taken  out  and  the  oysters  put  in ;  after  which, 
the  pate's  are  just  warmed,  and  no  more,  and  then  brought  up  to  the  din- 
ner table.  The  idea  that  long  cooking  increases  the  digestibility  of  food 
is  not  always  correct."  —  Indigestion  and  Biliousness.     Fothergill. 

P.  131,   §  194  (a.).      Decomposing  Food  to  be  Guarded  Against. — 

"  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  many  cases  are  recorded-  in  works  upon 
poisons,  such  as  Dr.  Christison's,  where  decayed  animal  food  has  produced 


374  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

severe  and  even  fatal  diarrhoea,  in  spite  of  cookery  having  concealed  some 
of  its  repulsiveness.  High  game  has  fortunately  gone  out  of  fashion,  and 
the  most  frequent  form  in  which  we  now  meet  with  decomposing  albumi- 
noid matter  is  that  of  a  fusty  egg.  Some  housekeepers  seem  to  consider 
this  quite  good  enough  for  made  dishes,  and  thus  spoil  material  worth  ten 
times  what  they  save  by  their  nasty  economy.  No  egg  should  be  allowed 
to  enter  the  kitchen  that  has  the  slightest  smell  of  rotten  straw."  —  Manual 
of  Diet.     Dr.  T.  K.  Chambers. 

P.  131,  §194(6.).  Selection  of  Meats. —''Good  meat  has  the  fol- 
lowing characters :  1.  It  is  neither  of  a  pale  pink  color  nor  of  a  deep 
purple  tint,  for  the  former  is  a  sign  of  disease,  and  the  latter  indicates 
that  the  animal  has  not  been  slaughtered,  but  has  died  with  the  blood 
in  it,  or  has  suffered  from  acute  fever,  2.  It  has  a  marbled  appearance 
from  the  ramifications  of  little  veins  of  fat  among  the  muscles.  3.  It 
should  be  firm  and  elastic  to  the  touch,  and  should  scarcely  moisten 
the  fingers  —  bad  meat  being  wet  and  sodden  and  flabby,  with  the  fat 
looking  like  jelly  or  wet  parchment.  4.  It  should  have  little  or  no  odor, 
and  the  odor  should  not  be  disagreeable,  for  diseased  meat  has  a  sickly, 
cadaverous  smell,  and  sometimes  a  smell  of  physic.  This  is  very  discov- 
erable when  the  meat  is  chopped  up  and  drenched  with  warm  water. 
5.  It  should  not  shrink  much  in  cooking.  6.  It  should  not  run  to  water 
or  become  very  wet  on  standing  for  a  day  or  so,  but  should,  on  the  con- 
trary, dry  upon  the  surface."  —  Lethebi/  on  Food. 

P.  136,  §  204  (a.).  The  Importance  of  Vegetable  Food.— "The  com- 
monest fault  committed  by  housekeepers  in  respect  of  vegetables  is,  that 
they  do  not  supply  a  sufficient  variety,  seeming  to  consider  that  the 
meat  is  the  only  part  of  the  meal  that  requires  care,  and  that  all  the 
rest  is  mere  garnish;  beneath  the  notice  of  a  Briton,  and  unfit  to  sus- 
tain his  vigorous  life.  Yet  that  is  not  the  experience  of  the  observers  of 
mankind.  The  attention  of  Herodotus  was  called  to  the  fact  that  the  Per- 
sians, the  manliest  and  most  sporting  nation  in  the  world,  had  at  meals  not 
only  several  dishes,  but  several  courses  of  vegetable  food,  preceding  a  very  • 
moderate  allowance  of  solid  meat.  And  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  describes 
the  diet  of  this  tough  race  as  practically  the  same  now,  so  that  the 
assumptions  of  some  anthropologists  that  hunting  races  are  necessarily 
riotous  eaters  of  flesh,  and  that  carnivoracity  strengthens  a  nation,  are  not 
accurate.  The  Persian  gentleman  is  the  spiritual  father  of  the  British 
squire ;  yet,  at  many  a  hospitable  board,  if  a  guest  does  not  fancy  meat 
that  day,  or  has  eaten  enough  of  it  at  a  previous  meal,  lie  will  have  to  fall 
back  upon  potatoes,  or  to  solace  himself  by  picking  a  few  bits  out  of  the 
sauces  of  made  dishes,  where  the  vegetable  flavor  has  been  saturated  witli 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  375 

that  of  meat  and  spoilt.     Usually,  he  goes  on  eating  too  much  nitrogenous 
food  out  of  sheer  idleness."  — Manual  of  Diet.     Chambers. 

P.  137,  §  205  (a.).  Salads. — "Vegetables  intended  to  be  used  for 
salad  should  all  be  fresh  and  crisp,  and  sweet  and  clean.  Their  colors 
should  be  positive  and  even;  the  reds  very  red,  the  wliites  very  white, 
and  the  greens  pure  as  those  in  an  autumn  sunset  sky,  except  in  the 
full-grown  leaves,  such  as  watercress.  .  .  .  With  a  little  trouble,  not, 
however,  necessarily  attended  by  expense,  a  succession  may  be  provided 
of  materials  for  salad  all  the  year  round,  so  as  to  have  one  at  table 
every  day.  And  a  great  preservation  of  health  I  believe  it  to  be  for 
hearty  persons.  The  most  difficult  season  to  provide  for  is  the  latter 
end  of  winter,  and  it  may  be  of  use  to  mention  that  the  dandelion  is 
then  a  friend  in  need.  If  a  pot  be  placed  over  the  plant  as  it  grows,  or 
the  leaves  tied  up  like  lettuce,  or  it  be  transplanted  into  a  frame,  it  can  be 
bleached,  and  thus  loses  its  bitterness.  Daisy  leaves  are  also  eatable; 
and  thus,  with  a  sprig  of  tarragon,  a  few  cold  potatoes,  and  some  ever- 
constant  mustard  and  cress,  giant  cress,  Australian  or  curled  cress,  an 
olive  or  two  pared  thin,  or  some  beet-root  and  a  slice  of  Madeira  onion,  a 
great  variety  of  combinations  may  be  made."  —  Manual  of  Diet.   Chambers. 

P.  137,  §  206  (a.).  The  Food  Value  of  Peas,  Beans,  etc.  —"Then 
there  are  the  vegetable  albuminoids,  especially  the  pulse  tribe,  or  leg- 
umes, which  are  capitally  disintegrated  by  cooking,  and  best  by  boiling 
or  baking.  Thus  beans,  haricots  and  broad,  peas,  lentils,  dahl,  etc.,  are  all 
well  broken  up  by  heat.  The  disintegrated  flour  can  easily  be  passed 
through  a  sieve,  and  then  the  disintegration  factor  of  the  digestive  act  is 
disposed  of.  There  can  be  no  question  about  the  fact  that  with  some  per- 
sons vegetable  albuminoids  are  much  more  easily  digested  than  animal 
albuminoids ;  and  I  quite  agree  with  Sir  Henry  Thompson  in  his  remarks 
upon  this  subject.  Besides,  too,  fat  spreads  easily  over  the  disintegrated 
particles  of  cooked  vegetable  albuminoids,  as  is  well  seen  in  the  baked 
beans  and  fat  pork  of  New  England.  Indeed,  by  such  means,  fat  can 
often  be  taken  without  offence  to  a  stomach  that  cannot  otherwise  tolerate 
it;  and  much  of  the  digestibility  of  fat  depends  upon  the  fineness  of  the 
particles  into  which  it  is  sub-divided.  Haricot  beans  well  boiled,  passed 
through  a  sieve,  and  then  the  floury  part  mixed  with  milk,  makes  an  excel- 
lent soup ;  quite  equal  in  food  value  to  any  made  with  meat  stock.  The 
ordinary  lentil  soup  is  at  once  a  most  economical  and  a  most  valuable 
soup,  though  scarcely,  perhaps,  quite  adapted  for  persons  with  indigestion. 
But  '  the  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating  thereof,'  —  if  it  does  not  dis- 
agree, there  is  certainly  no  objection  to  its  use."  —  Fothergill. 

P.  137,  §  206  (a.).  Combinations  of  Food.  — "Certain  combinations 
of  the  various  foods  of  man   are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  nutrition 


376  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

of  his  tissues,  the  maintenance  of  the  body  heat,  and  the  evolution  of 
force.  Consequently,  we  find  meat,  especially  lean  meat,  and  potatoes 
taken  together;  pork  and  boiled  peas;  liver  and  bacon;  bacon  and 
beans ;  lean  beef  and  fat  bacon ;  bread  and  butter  and  cheese ;  raisins 
and  almonds,  etc.  In  these  combinations  the  different  forms  of  food 
are  included,  the  one  constituent  supplementing  what  is  deficient  in  the 
other.  The  most  perfect  combination,  both  chemically  and  for  bulk  and 
keeping  qualities,  is  the  sausage  invented  for  the  German  army  in  the 
war  with  France  in  1870.  It  consists  of  two  concentrated  forms  of  food, 
or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  of  food  in  a  form  to  give  the  maximum  of 
nutrition  with  the  minimum  of  bulk,  pea  meal  and  bacon  fat  with  condi- 
ments. It  is  a  combination  at  first  sight  scarcely  likely  to  form  an  article 
of  common  use,  but  it  suits  its  purpose  well,  and  supplied  the  absolutely 
essential  material  for  nutrition,  leaving  the  soldier  to  add  bulk  in  any  form 
he  found  agreeable  and  palatable."  —  The  Maintenance  of  Health.    Foth- 

ERGILL. 

P.  138,  §  207  (a.).  The  Quenching  of  Thirst  by  Fruit  rather  than  by 
Liquor.  — "  Some  dyspeptics  find  that  they  must  take  no  fluids  with  their 
food,  and  have  to  live  on  a  very  dry  dietary,  an  Arab  dietary.  Others  re- 
quire more  fluids  than  they  allow  themselves.  Others  require  a  biscuit,  or 
some  light  article  of  food  *  betwixt  meals.*  When  this  is  made  an  excuse 
for  a  glass  of  sherry,  it  is  to  be  closely  criticised  as  a  questionable  habit, 
*  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  the  observance.*  To  take  some  fruit 
would  be  better  in  every  way.  Some  succulent  fruit  would  satisfy  the  crav- 
ing *  for  something,*  and  would  not  require  the  beverage  '  to  get  it  down.' 
Such  use  of  fruit  ought  to  be  more  general  than  it  is  at  present.  In  all 
households  where  the  expense  does  not  forbid  it,  a  large  dish  of  picked 
fruit  of  various  kinds,  when  the  season  permits  of  it,  should  be  placed  on 
the  side-board  every  morning,  with  a  label  *  Help  yourself  *  on  it  (as  is 
found  in  the  waiting-rooms  of  several  London  consultants).  Children 
would  soon  cease  to  overeat  themselves,  just  as  do  the  assistants  in  con- 
fectioners' shops,  when  they  realize  that  it  is  to  be  a  constant  affair,  not 
an  occasional  treat  to  be  made  the  most  of.  Such  an  idea  is  well  worthy 
of  adoption.  If  the  *  temperance  *  section  of  society  would  set  the  exam- 
ple, it  would  soon  be  followed  by  others,  to  the  benefit  of  the  digestive 
organs  of  many  while  it  would  be  agreeable  to  all.  Fresh  gathered  fruit 
out  of  the  garden  and  orchard  ought  to  be  placed  on  the  breakfast  table 
every  morning.  For  those  who  experience  a  bitter  or  hot  taste  in  the 
morning  on  awakening,  such  addition  to  the  breakfast  table  would  be 
most  acceptable."  —  Indigestion  and  Biliousness.     Fothergill. 

P.  139,  §  209  («.).  /Iifiss  Corson  on  the  Use  of  Savory  Herbs.  — 
Miss  Corson,  Superintendent  of  the  New  York  Cooking   School,  in  her 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  377 

Coohing  Manual,  says  :  "  Sweet  and  savory  herbs  are  absolutely  indispensa- 
ble to  good  cooking ;  they  give  variety  and  savory  flavors  to  any  dish  into 
which  they  enter,  and  are  nearly  all  of  some  decided  sanitary  use;  the 
different  kinds  called  for  in  the  various  receipts  further  on  in  this  work 
can  be  bought  at  almost  any  grocery  store,  or  in  the  market ;  but  we  advise 
our  readers  to  obtain  seeds  from  some  good  florist  and  make  little  kitchen 
gardens  of  their  own,  even  if  the  space  planted  be  only  a  box  of  mould  in 
the  kitchen  window.  Sage,  thyme,  summer  savory,  sweet  marjoram, 
tarragon,  sweet  basil,  rosemary,  mint,  burnet,  chervil,  dill,  and  parsley 
will  grow  abundantly  with  very  little  care;  and  when  dried  and  added 
judiciously  to  food,  greatly  improve  its  flavor.  Parsley,  tarragon,  and 
fennel  should  be  dried  in  May,  June,  and  July,  just  before  flowering ; 
mint  in  June  and  July;  thyme,  marjoram,  and  savory  in  July  and 
August;  basil  and  sage  in  August  and  September;  all  herbs  should  be 
gathered  in  the  sunshine,  and  dried  by  artificial  heat ;  their  flavor  is  best 
preserved  by  keeping  them  in  air-tight  tin  cans." 

P.  139,  §  210  (a.).  Ice  and  Ice  Wafer.  —  "About  three  pints  of  fluids 
are  the  normal  allowance  of  water  to  human  beings  in  a  temperate  clime 
under  ordinary  circumstances ;  but  when  there  is  much  perspiration,  in- 
duced by  exertion  or  other  cause,  a  much  larger  quantity  is  necessary. 
In  iron  works,  the  men,  exposed  to  high  temperatures  and  bathed  in 
perspiration,  when  at  work  drink  from  two  to  four  gallons  of  fluids 
per  diem.  There  is  a  popular  prejudice  against  drinking  freely  of  cold 
fluids  when  heated,  and  no  doubt  death  is  sometimes  so  induced;  but 
the  consumption  of  cold  and  even  chilled  drinks  is  now  much  on  the 
increase.  Ice  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  mere  luxury;  it  has  become 
a  necessary  of  life  in  hot  weather,  and  its  addition  to  a  beverage  adds 
much  to  its  agreeableness.  The  chilled  fluid  directly  lowers  the  heat  of 
the  body,  and  abstracts  from  it  as  much  heat  as  is  requisite  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  chilled  fluid  to  that  of  the  body,  that  is,  from  about 
32°  to  99° ;  this  exercises  a  distinct  influence  over  the  body  temperature 
for  some  time.  It  is  obvious  from  this  that  the  quantity  of  the  chilled 
fluid  has  much  to  do  with  the  effect,  and  a  pint  will  take  twice  as  much 
heat  to  raise  its  temperature  as  will  half  a  pint.  Consequently  it  is  not 
unimportant  to  the  imbiber  what  the  amount  of  his  fluid  is,  as  well  as  its 
temperature ;  and  to  those  who  produce  heat  but  slowly  a  sip  of  iced  fluid 
is  as  cooling  as  a  draught  of  it  to  another  whose  heat-forming  power  is 
great.  The  draught  of  the  latter  would  be  as  dangerous  to  the  first,  as 
the  sip  of  the  first  would  be  useless  and  ineffective  to  the  latter.  At 
all  entertainments,  dancing  and  other,  where  the  heat  becomes  great, 
ice,  both  as  a  beverage  and  in  the  more  solid  form  of  ice  cream,  forms  now 
the  essential  matter  of  the  refreshment  table,  and  is  very  acceptable.    It 


378  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

must  be  remembered,  however,  that  free  indulgence  in  iced  fluids  is  very 
apt  to  induce  a  sharp  diarrhoea  in  many  persons.  Also  the  free  consump- 
tion of  ice  has  not  unfrequently  the  effect  of  creating  even  a  stronger 
craving  than  ever  for  fluids,  from  the  same  action  upon  the  throat  that 
snowballs  have  on  boys'  hands  —  the  persistent  cold  causes  a  free  flow  of 
arterial  blood  to  the  part.  In  such  case  a  drink  of  warm  fluid  often  gives 
relief."  —  Maintenance  of  Health.     Fothergill. 

P.  140,  §  211  (a.).  Pure  Spring  Water.  — "A  country  house  is  for- 
tunate if  it  possesses  at  a  convenient  distance  a  good,  cool,  copious 
spring.  Nothing  is  more  attractive  or  more  serviceable  about  a  Penn- 
sylvania farm  than  the  spring  house ;  often  jutting  out  from  a  bank  or 
hillside,  built  low,  but  firmly,  of  gray  stone,  and  shaded  over  by  a  few 
old  trees.  Within  you  see  the  clear,  transparent  pool  of  water,  in  its 
reservoir  of  stone,  pure  as  the  air  or  sky  overhead;  and  around  it,  or 
carefully  placed  in  it,  the  pans  of  milk  or  cream,  or  butter,  waiting  for 
family  use.  A  draught  from  that  supply,  flowing  out  to  make  a  limpid 
stream  through  the  meadow  below,  gives  more  refreshment  on  a  midsum- 
mer day  than  the  most  temptmg  beverage  of  man's  contrivance.  It  has 
in  it  no  horrors,  no  mockery,  onZy  AeaZiA." — Our  Homes.     Henry  Harts- 

HORNE,  M.D. 

p.  143,  §  215  (a.).      When   Scum  and   Water  Weeds   are  Harmful.  — 

"  According  to  Prof.  W.  G.  Farlow,  M.D.,i  the  flowering  plants  known  as 
water  weeds,  both  those  that  grow  from  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  water- 
courses, and  have  distinct  stems  and  leaves,  and  also  those  that  float  on 
the  surface  as  scum,  are,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  harmless.  They 
may  prove  (1)  troublesome  or  injurious  by  growing  so  luxuriantly  as  to 
choke  up  small  streams  and  shallow  ponds;  (2)  by  serving  as  points  of 
attachment  or  shelter  for  injurious  small  plants;  and  (3)  by  decaying  in 
hot  weather." 

P.  144,  §  216  (a.).  Purification  of  Water  by  Filtering.— The  follow- 
ing home-made  filter  is  advised  by  Dr.  Parkes,  the  eminent  sanitarian : 
"Take  a  large,  common  flower-pot,  and  put  into  it  a  bit  of  zinc  gauze 
or  a  clean  bit  of  flannel ;  then  coarse  gravel  to  the  depth  of  about  three 
inches ;  over  that  the  same  amount  of  white  sand  washed  very  clean ; 
and  next,  four  inches  of  charcoal  in  small  fragments, — animal  charcoal 
when  it  can  be  had.  On  the  top  of  all,  a  piece  of  well-cleaned  sponge  may 
be  placed,  making  sure  that  this  is  changed  or  thoroughly  cleansed  once 
in  a  week  or  two ;  more  or  less  often,  according  to  the  impurity  of  the 
water." 

1  First  Report  of  Louisiana  Board  of  Health. 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  379 

"  If  the  water  be  impure,  it  may  be  rendered  sweet  by  charcoal  pow- 
der." "  This  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  beneficial  discoveries  of  mod- 
ern times,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Lowiz  of  Petersburgh.  Water 
which  has  a  disagreeable  odor,  or  has  become  putrid,  may  almost  immedi- 
ately be  freed  from  its  nauseous  taste,  as  well  as  its  bad  smell,  and  be 
converted  into  good  drinkable  liquor,  by  the  following  process  :  Take  some 
burnt  charcoal,  and  reduce  it  to  a  fine  powder.  Mix  about  a  tablespoonful 
of  this  powder  in  a  pint  of  water,  stir  it  well  around,  and  suffer  it  to  stand 
for  a  few  minutes.  Let  it  then  run  slowly  through  filtering  paper  into  a 
glass,  and  it  will  be  found  quite  transparent,  without  any  bad  taste  or 
smell,  and  perfectly  pure  for  drinking.  People  may  preserve  the  charcoal 
powder  a  long  time  in  a  small  bottle  well  corked,  and  carry  it  with  them 
when  they  travel."  —  Hufeland's  Art  of  Prolonginy  Life.  Note  by  Erasmus 
Wilson,  M.D. 

P.  147,  §  221  (a.).  The  Use  of  Alcohol  as  a  Medicine.  -"Under  the 
pressing  demands  of  a  progressive  civilization,  the  hurry  of  business,  the 
excitements  of  professional  life,  the  exhaustion  of  the  nervous  system  is 
enormous.  Every  agent  that  offers  relief  is  eagerly  sought,  and  stimu- 
lants and  narcotics  meet  the  demand.  For  a  brief  period  they  soothe  and 
comfort  .  .  .  but  the  same  agents  that  deceive  into  joy  leave  the  victim  in 
greater  depression  and  with  more  lasting  fatigue.  Under  their  Influence, 
the  intellectual  faculties  are  quickened,  but,  sooner  or  later,  by  their  over- 
stimulation, mental  weakness  and  sometimes  imbecility  results.  .  .  .  The 
daily  use  of  alcohol  by  those  in  health  is  needless,  and  often  harmful. 
Wine  is  a  stimulant  to  digestion.  More  food  is  taken  than  is  needed  for 
the  growth  of  the  body  and  the  daily  waste.  All  food  taken  in  excess  of 
the  bodily  requirements  is  not  only  useless,  but  positively  injurious,  for  it 
becomes  a  burden  on  the  organism,  and  leads  to  disease.  Alcohol  also 
interferes  with  the  proper  oxidation  of  the  waste  material  by  offering  to 
the  oxygen  of  the  blood  an  easily  burned  carbo-hydrate.  The  alcohol  is 
consumed  while  the  waste  material,  which  must  be  oxidized  to  prepare  it 
for  elimination,  escapes  perfect  combustion,  and  there  results  accumula- 
tion of  poisonous  compounds  in  the  body,  causing  that  class  of  ailments 
known  as  "waste  diseases."  This  action  of  alcohol,  harmful  in  health, 
leads  to  excellent  results  when  properly  used  in  disease,  especially  those 
characterized  by  high  temperature  and  rapid  emaciation.  .  .  .  But  is  there 
not  danger  that  the  use  of  alcohol,  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  may  lead 
to  habits  of  intemperance  1  Doubtless,  such  cases  have  occurred,  but  we 
must  remember  that  these  habits  are  not  infrequently  referred  to  medical 
advice  as  the  least  unpleasant  explanation  of  their  origin.  .  .  .  But  when 
there  is  the  least  danger,  the  physician  should  be  ever  on  his  guard.  He 
has  the  right  to  proscribe   as  well  as  prescrihe,  and  it  is  better  that  a 


380  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

hundred  men  should  be  sick  a  few  days  longer  than  they  otherwise  might 
be  than  that  one  should  get  up  a  drunkard  or  an  opium-eater."— Extract 
from  an  address  delivered  by  Pkof.  J.  A.  McCorkle,  on  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Narcotics  and  Stimulants:  Jan.,  1884. 

P.  147,  §  221  (a.).  Moderate  Drinking;  its  Dangers.  —"It  is  a 
mournful  spectacle  —  that  of  the  brave,  ingenuous,  high-spirited  man 
sinking  steadily  down  into  the  degradation  of  inebriety ;  but  how  many 
such  spectacles  are  visible  all  over  the  land !  And  it  is  not  in  the 
character  of  those  alone  who  are  notorious  drunkards  that  such  tendencies 
appear.  They  are  often  distinctly  seen  in  the  lives  of  men  who  are  never 
drunk.  Sir  Henry  Thompson's  testimony  is  emphatic  to  the  effect  that  *  the 
habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors,  to  an  extent  far  short  of  what  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  intoxication,  injures  the  body  and  diminishes  the  mental 
power.'  If,  as  he  testifies,  a  large  proportion  of  the  most  painful  and 
dangerous  maladies  of  the  body  are  due  to  *  the  use  of  fermented  liquors, 
taken  in  the  quantity  which  is  conventionally  deemed  moderate,'  then  it  is 
certain  that  such  use  of  them  must  result  also  in  serious  injuries  to  the 
mental  and  moral  nature.  Who  does  not  know  reputable  gentlemen,  phy- 
sicians, artists,  clergymen  even,  who  were  never  drunk  in  their  lives,  and 
never  will  be,  but  who  reveal,  in  conversation  and  in  conduct,  certain  mel- 
ancholy effects  of  the  drinking  habit  ?  The  brain  is  so  often  inflamed 
with  alcohol  that  its  functions  are  imperfectly  performed,  and  there  is  a 
perceptible  loss  of  mental  power  and  of  moral  tone.  The  drinker  is  not 
conscious  of  this  loss ;  but  those  who  know  him  best  are  painfully  aware 
that  his  perceptions  are  less  keen,  his  judgments  less  sound,  his  temper 
less  serene,  his  spiritual  vision  less  clear,  because  he  tarries  every  day  a 
little  too  long  at  the  wine.  Even  those  who  refuse  to  entertain  ascetic 
theories  respecting  these  beverages  may  be  able  to  see  that  there  are  uses 
of  them  that  stop  short  of  drunkenness,  and  that  are  still  extremely  hurt- 
ful to  the  mind  and  the  heart  as  well  as  the  body.  That  conventional  idea 
of  moderation,  to  which  Sir  Henry  Thompson  refers,  is  quite  elastic ;  the 
term  is  stretched  to  cover  habits  that  are  steadily  despoiling  the  life  of  its 
rarest  fruits.  The  drinking  habit  is  often  defended  by  reputable  gentle- 
men to  whom  the  very  thought  of  a  debauch  would  be  shocking,  but  to 
whom,  if  it  were  only  lawful,  in  the  tender  and  just  solicitude  of  friend- 
ship, such  words  as  these  might  be  spoken :  *  It  is  true  that  you  are  not 
drunkards,  and  may  never  be ;  but  if  you  could  know,  what  is  too  evident 
to  those  who  love  you  best,  how  your  character  is  slowly  losing  the  firm- 
ness of  its  texture  and  the  fineness  of  its  outline ;  how  your  art  deteriorates 
in  the  delicacy  of  its  touch ;  how  the  atmosphere  of  your  life  seems  to 
grow  murky  and  the  sky  lowers  gloomily  above  you,  —  you  would  not 
think  your  daily  indulgence  harmless  in  its  measure.     It  is  in  just  such 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  381 

lives  as  yours  that  drink  exhibits  some  of  its  most  mournful  tragedies/  "  — 
The  Century. 

P.  148,  §  222  (a.).    Alcohol  of  little  Value  in  Maintaining  Animal  Heat. 

— "  .  .  .  My  first  illustration  was  obtained  through  Sir  John  Richardson, 
a  medical  officer  high  in  our  naval  service,  who  was  early  associated  with 
Sir  John  Franklin  in  Arctic  exploration.  It  was  then  his  conclusion  that, 
even  under  extreme  privation,  the  use  of  alcoholics  did  much  more  harm 
than  good ;  so  that  it  was  better  to  burn  the  alcohol  in  a  lamp,  and  to  heat 
tea  or  some  other  liquid  with  it,  and  by  drinking  this  to  get  a  real  heating 
effect,  than  to  put  the  alcohol  into  the  stomach.  For  what  heat  they  got 
from  one  was  so  much  gain ;  while  the  other,  being  only  a  stimulant,  was 
followed  by  a  depression  which  made  the  cold  seem  only  more  severe.  On 
another  expedition  (the  first  sent  to  look  for  Franklin),  Sir  John  Richard- 
son passed  the  winter  with  a  party  in  the  north  of  America,  as  near  the 
borders  of  the  Icy  Sea  as  they  could  reach.  They  were  well  supplied  with 
food,  and  lived  in  a  log-house  which  had  been  built  for  them  by  our  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company,  Sir  John  had  made  it  a  strict  condition  that  his 
party  should  go  out  upon  strictly  total  abstinence  principles ;  he  would 
not  have  any  spirit  at  all.  It  was  a  part  of  his  work  through  the  winter 
to  make  a  series  of  magnetic  observations ;  and  it  was  necessary  that  the 
magnetic  observatory  should  be  at  a  short  distance  from  the  house,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  local  attraction  of  iron.  Sir  John  told  me  that  he  wa8 
accustomed  to  go  out  at  night  from  the  house  to  the  magnetic  observatory 
—  as  it  were,  to  go  across  the  street,  where  he  would  make  his  observa- 
tions, and  return  —  without  even  putting  on  his  great-coat.  I  asked  him 
how  cold  was  the  temperature  to  which  he  exposed  himself.  He  said  that 
the  temperature  in  the  log-house  was  about  fifty  degrees  above  zero,  and 
that  outside  it  would  sometimes  be  about  fifty  below  zero.  There  was  a 
change  of  a  hundred  degrees,  which  he  found  he  was  able  to  endure  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  without  putting  on  his  great-coat.  That  will  show  the 
kind  of  evidence  which  I  proceeded  upon.  Many  of  our  Arctic  voyagers 
have  given  me  the  same  experience.  Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  who  served  with 
Captain  James  Ross  in  his  Antarctic  expedition  about  forty  years  ago,  has 
given  me  evidence  of  nearly  the  same  kind.  And  we  have  now  the  scien- 
tific rationale  of  these  facts,  in  the  proof  obtained  by  chemical  means,  that 
the  alcohol  taken  into  the  body  is  not  burned  at  all,  but  is  expelled  from 
it  as  a  substance  foreign  to  its  constitution," —  The  Physiology  of  Alcoholics, 
by  Wm,  B.  Carpentek,  M,D.,  L.L.D.,  F,R.S. 

P.  149,  §  223  (a.).  Cigarette  Smoking.  — "Scarcely  less  injurious, 
in  a  subtle  and  generally  unrecognized  way,  than  the  habit  of  taking 
*  nips '  of  alcohol  between  meals,  is  the  growing  practice  of  smoking 
cigarettes  incessantly.     We  have  not  a  word  to  say  against  smoking  at 


382  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

suitable  times  and  in  moderation,  nor  do  our  remarks  at  this  moment 
apply  to  the  use  of  cigars  or  pipes.  It  is  against  the  habit  of  smok- 
ing cigarettes  in  large  quantities,  with  the  belief  that  these  miniature 
doses  of  nicotine  are  innocuous,  we  desire  to  enter  a  protest.  The  truth 
is  that,  perhaps  owing  to  the  way  the  tobacco  leaf  is  shredded,  coupled 
with  the  fact  that  it  is  brought  into  more  direct  relation  with  the  mouth 
and  air  passages  than  when  it  is  smoked  in  a  pipe  or  cigar,  the  effects  pro- 
duced on  the  nervous  system  by  a  free  consumption  of  cigarettes  are  more 
marked  and  characteristic  than  those  recognizable  after  recourse  to  other 
modes  of  smoking.  A  pulse-tracing,  made  after  the  subject  has  smoked  a 
dozen  cigarettes'  will,  as  a  rule,  be  flatter  and  more  indicative  of  depres- 
sion thaH  one  taken  after  the  smoking  of  cigars.  It  is  no  uncommon  prac- 
tice for  young  men  who  smoke  cigarettes  habitually  to  consume  from 
eight  to  twelve  in  an  hour,  and  to  keep  this  up  for  four  or  five  hours 
daily.  The  total  quantity  of  tobacco  used  may  not  seem  large,  but,  be- 
yond question,  the  volume  of  smoke  to  which  the  breath  organs  of  the 
smoker  are  exposed,  and  tlie  characteristics  of  that  smoke  as  regards  the 
proportion  of  nicotine  introduced  into  the  system,  combine  to  place  the 
organism  very  fully  under  the  influence  of  the  tobacco.  A  considerable 
number  of  cases  have  been  brought  under  our  notice  during  the  last  few 
months,  in  which  youths  and  young  men  who  have  not  yet  completed  the 
full  term  of  physical  development  have  had  their  health  seriously  impaired 
by  the  practice  of  almost  incessantly  smoking  cigarettes.  It  is  well  that 
the  facts  should  be  known,  as  the  impression  evidently  prevails  that  any 
number  of  these  little  '  whiffs  *  must  needs  be  perfectly  innocuous,  whereas 
they  often  do  infinite  harm."  —  Lancet. 

P.  194,  §  269  (a.).     The  Results  of  re-breath ing  Expired  Air. —"If 

you  want  to  see  how  different  the  breath  breathed  out  is  from  the 
breath  taken  in,  you  have  only  to  try  a  somewhat  cruel  experiment,  but 
one  which  people  too  often  try  upon  themselves,  their  children,  and  their 
work-people.  If  you  take  any  small  animal  with  lungs  like  your  own, —  a 
mouse,  for  instance,  —  and  force  it  to  breathe  no  air  but  what  you  have 
breathed  already ;  if  you  put  it  in  a  close  box,  and,  while  you  take  in 
breath  from  the  outer  air,  send  out  your  breath  througli  a  tube  into  that 
box,  the  animal  will  soon  faint ;  if  you  go  on  long  with  this  process,  it 
will  die. 

"  Take  a  second  instance,  which  I  beg  to  press  most  seriously  on  the 
notice  of  mothers,  governesses,  and  nurses.  If  you  allow  a  child  to  get 
into  the  habit  of  sleeping  with  its  head  under  the  bed-clothes,  and  thereby 
breathing  its  own  breath  over  and  over  again,  that  child  will,  assuredly, 
grow  pale,  weak,  and  ill.  Medical  men  have  cases  on  record  of  scrofula 
appearing  in  children  previously  healthy,  which  could  only  be  accounted 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  383 

for  from  this  habit,  and  which  ceased  when  the  habit  stopped."  —  Health 
and  Education.     Rev.  Chas.  Kingslky. 

P.  198,  §  274  (a.).  The  Adoption  of  Prevalent  Customs.  — The  emi- 
grant "  should  always  adopt  any  custom  which,  however  new  and  strange, 
he  finds  in  use  among  the  settlers  of  a  new  country.  Those  who  have 
preceded  him  have  had  the  like  Saxon  unwillingness  to  adopt  a  new 
habit,  and  have  only  done  so  from  necessity,  the  reasons  for  which  may 
not  always  be  apparent.  It  is  better  to  fall  into  it  at  once,  and  then 
seek  for  its  explanation.  Especially  is  this  caution  necessary  in  the 
matter  of  food.  Thus  the  newly-arrived  emigrant  in  India  goes  on  with 
his  English  food,  his  bottled  beer,  wine,  etc.,  and  is  ere  long  a  broken- 
down,  jaundiced  creature,  whose  liver  has  been  ruined,  firstly,  by  the 
work  thrown  upon  it  in  accumulation  of  bile  in  it  in  excess,  the  climate 
only  requiring  sparing  quantities  of  food,  and,  secondly,  by  the  medicine 
taken  to  relieve  his  condition.  ...  In  travelling,  the  same  thing  is  seen, 
though  to  a  less  extent  than  in  emigration,  and  the  superior  power  of 
adaptation  to  the  wants  and  requirements  of  the  country  explains  the 
health  of  one  person,  and  the  want  of  it,  much  of  the  ill-health  of  another." 
—  Maintenance  of  Health.     Fothergill. 

P.  204,  §  283  (a.).  To  what  Contagious  and  Infectious  Diseases  are 
Due.  —  These  germs  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  fungi,  and  are  known  as 
bacteria.  They  differ  in  form  and  mode  of  development,  depending  upon 
the  diseased  condition  with  which  they  are  associated.  Some  of  the  dis- 
eases which  depend  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon  these  germs,  and  hence 
are  known  as  infectious  or  contagious  diseases,  are  anthrax,  diphtheria, 
leprosy,  scarlet  and  typhus  fevers,  etc.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  recent 
investigations  seem  to  prove  that  consumption  and  cholera  have  their  in- 
fecting germs,  which  may  induce  in  a  person  ready  for  their  development 
these  serious  diseases. 

"  The  presence  of  septic  organisms,  possessing  different  degrees  of  viru- 
lence depending  upon  the  abundance  and  kind  of  pabulum  furnished 
them,  and  upon  meteorological  conditions  more  or  less  favorable,  consti- 
tutes, in  my  opinion,  the  epidemic  constitution  of  the  atmosphere,  which  wise 
men  were  wont  to  speak  of,  not  many  years  ago,  as  a  cloak  for  ignorance. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  gutter  mud  of  to-day,  with  its  deadly 
septic  organisms,  is  the  dust  of  to-morrow,  which,  in  respiration,  is  de- 
posited upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  passages  of  those 
who  breathe  the  air  loaded  with  it.  Whether  the  peculiar  poison  of  each 
specific  disease  is  of  the  same  nature  or  not,  —  a  question  which  can  only 
be  settled  by  extending  experimental  investigations  in  the  future,  —  it 
is  altogether  probable  that  this  factor  often  gives  a  malignant  character 


384  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

to  epidemics  of  diseases  which,  uncomplicated,  are  of  a  comparatively 
trivial  nature." — Bulletin  of  Natioiial  Board  of  Health.  Dr.  Geo.  M.  Stern- 
berg, U.S.A. 

P.  204,  §283  (6.).  The  Germ  Theory  of  ^/sease. —"During  the 
last  few  years,  the  germ  theory  of  disease  has  rapidly  been  gaining 
ground.  It  is  now,  indeed,  all  but  universally  admitted  that  many  of 
the  diseases  called  zymotic,  which  comprises  epidemic,  endemic,  and  con- 
tagious diseases,  owe  their  origin  to  germs  introduced  into  the  organi- 
zation from  without.  For  these  germs,  however,  to  take  root  as  it  were, 
to  develop,  the  animal  organization  must  be  prepared  for  their  reception. 
The  most  efficacious  preparation,  no  doubt,  is  a  low  state  of  vitality  from 
defective  nutrition.  We  are,  throughout  life,  constantly  receiving  into  the 
economy  these  germs  of  disease ;  but,  if  the  nutritive  functions  are  sound, 
and  the  organization  is  healthy,  it  resists  their  presence  and  action.  They 
do  not  find  in  it  a  suitable  nidus  wherein  to  germinate,  so  they  are  de- 
stroyed or  expelled.  Following  this  train  of  thought,  we  arrive  at  the 
inevitable  conclusion  that  to  escape  the  attack  of  zymotic  disease  we  must 
be  in  good  health,  that  is,  in  a  sound  nutritive  state."  —  Bennett,  Nutrition 
in  Health  and  Disease, 

P.  206,  §  284  (a.).  The  "Black  Hole  of  Calcutta." —  In  1756,  one 
hundred  and  forty-six  English  prisoners  in  Calcutta  were  confined  over 
night  in  an  apartment  about  eighteen  feet  square  and  fourteen  feet  high, 
having  but  one  small  window.  In  the  morning,  there  were  alive  twenty- 
three  only  of  the  strongest,  who  had  been  able  to  get  near  the  window  in 
the  struggle  that  had  occurred  for  fresh  air.  And  of  these,  nearly  all 
died  subsequently  of  a  very  low  type  of  typhus  fever,  known  as  "  putrid 
fever."  The  place  of  their  imprisonment  has  ever  since  been  known  as 
the  "  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta." 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  passengers  shut  up  in  the  steamer  London- 
derry, with  hatches  battened  down,  during  a  stormy  night  in  1848,  seventy- 
two  died  before  morning. 

P.  206,  §  284  [h.).     The   Air  of  Bedrooms,    Hospital  Wards,    etc.  — 

The  air  escaping  from  the  ventilator  of  a  crowded  room  is  said  to  be 
very  offensive,  and,  if  drawn  through  pure  water,  will  taint  it.  The  air 
of  bedrooms  sometimes  becomes  so  contaminated  at  night  that  sleep  is 
restless  or  broken.  The  admission  of  a  little  fresh  air  will  at  such  times 
often  enable  one  to  sleep  soundly.  Little  children,  or  feeble  persons, 
having  passed  the  night  in  a  close  room,  are  liable  in  the  morning  to 
headache,  want  of  appetite,  and  a  general  feeling  of  debility. 

At  times,  the  walls,  floors,  and  bedding  of  hospital  wards  become  so 
permeated  with  poisonous  organic  matter  that  to  stay  in  them  is  unsafe 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  S86 

until  a  thorough   cleansing  and   disinfection  has   taken  place,  the  walls 
sometimes  even  requiring  to  be  entirely  replastered. 

P.  206,  §  285  (a.).  The  Value  of  the  Eucalyptus  Tree.  —"That  the 
E.  globulus  has  earned  by  fair  experiment  its  name  of  fever-tree,  as  a 
preventive,  seems  now  to  be  settled.  Its  rapid  growth  must  make  it  a 
great  drainer  of  wet  soils,  while  its  marked  terebinthine  odor  may  have 
its  influence,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  liberation  of  this  essence 
into  the  air  stands  connected  with  its  generation  of  ozone.  But  whatever 
the  sanatory  activities  of  the  eucalypt  may  be,  the  fact  is  squarely  settled 
that  spots  in  Italy,  uninhabitable  because  of  malarial  fever,  have  been 
rendered  tolerable  by  the  planting  of  E.  globulus,  and  it  is  believed  that  a 
more  plentiful  planting  would  nearly,  if  not  quite,  remove  the  difiiculty. 
A  military  post  is  mentioned  in  Algeria  in  which  the  garrison  had  to  be 
changed  every  five  days,  such  was  the  virulence  of  the  malaria.  A  plan- 
tation of  eucalypts  cleared  the  miasma  nearly  away,  and  rendered  unnec- 
essary the  frequent  changes  of  the  garrison.  In  this  case,  sixty  thousand 
trees  were  planted." — Popular  Science  Monthly :  April,  1876.    Prof.  Samuel 

LOCKWOOU. 

P.  206,  §  285  (a.).  Some  Facts  about  Malaria.  —  The  term  malaria, 
at  the  present  time  (1884),  is  frequently  applied  to  a  number  of  abnor- 
mal conditions  of  health,  instead  of  being  used  to  express  a  cause  of 
disease,  as  the  word  from  its  derivation  implies.  The  reason  for  its 
present  use  seems  to  be  that  the  changes  in  the  way  of  warming  and 
ventilating  houses,  change  in  industries,  in  the  style  of  living,  in  the 
habits  as  to  hours,  etc.,  which  have  occurred  within  the  last  twenty  years, 
have  given  rise  to  that  peculiar  cachexia,  which  is  now  called  "  malaria," 
which  resembles  that  caused  by  the  "fever  and  ague"  poison.  As  to  the 
latter,  it  is  of  interest  to  state  the  experience  of  Dr.  A.  N.  Bell,  the  emi- 
nent sanitarian,  who  says  "  that  this  poison  is  a  poor  sailor,  seldom  cross- 
ing large  bodies  of  water,  and  is  most  potent  at  night.  So  well  do  the 
natives  of  hot  and  malarious  countries  understand  this,  that  at  Lake  Mara- 
caibo,  for  example,  they  sleep  at  night  in  their  boats  on  the  lake,  after 
their  labor  through  the  day  on  shore,  not  allowing  themselves  to  stay  on 
the  deadly  poisonous  shore  after  sunset,  or  to  return  to  it  until  after  sun- 
rise." 

P.  208,  §  287  (a.).  Carbonic  Acid  in  Caves,  Wells,  etc.  — "Upon  the 
borders  of  Lake  Laacher,  near  the  Rhine,  and  in  Aigueperse,  in  Au- 
vergne,  there  are  two  sources  of  carbonic  acid  so  abundant  that  they 
give  rise  to  accidents  in  the  open  country.  The  gas  rises  out  of  small  hol- 
lows in  the  ground,  where  the  vegetation  is  very  rich;  the  insects  and 
small  animals,  attracted  by  the  richness  of  the  verdure,  seek  shelter  there, 


386  APPENDIX  KOTES. 

and  are  at  once  asphyxiated.  Their  bodies  attract  the  birds,  which  also 
perish.  In  former  times  the  accidents  caused  by  this  gas  in  caves,  mines, 
and  even  in  wells,  gave  rise  to  the  most  extravagant  stories.  Such  local- 
ities were  said  to  be  haunted  by  demons,  gnomes,  or  genii,  the  guardians  of 
subterranean  treasures,  whose  glance  alone  caused  death,  as  no  trace  of 
lesion  or  bruise  was  to  be  found  on  the  unfortunate  persons  so  suddenly 
struck  down."  —  The  Atmosphere.     Cammile  Flammarion. 

P.  208,  §  288  (a.).  Carbonic  Acid  in  Dwellings,  Schools,  etc.— "The 
air  in  a 

London  school-room  contained  29  parts  of  carbonic  acid  in  10,000  of  air, 
Munich  "  "  72     "      "        "  "     "       "        "    " 

Hospital  at  Madrid         "  43     "      "        "  "     "       "        "    " 

Bedroom  "       "  "  48     "      "        "  "     "       "        "    " 

Lecture  room  at  Paris    "  67     "      "        "  "     "       "       "    "     " 

Our  Homes  (Health  Primer).    Henry  Hartshorne,  A.M.,  M.D. 

A  similar  excess  often  exists  in  our  schools,  lecture  rooms,  etc.,  causing 
the  inmates  to  be  listless  and  drowsy,  and  to  suffer  from  headache  and 
faintness.  According  to  Pettenkofer,  a  man  exhales  every  hour  from  six 
to  seven-tenths  of  a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Angus  Smith  asserts 
that  a  good  oil  "  moderator  "  lamp  produces  a  little  more  than  half  a  cubic 
foot.  A  common  gas  burner,  consuming  three  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour, 
gives  off  about  as  much  carbonic  acid  as  three  men  in  the  same  time 
would  do.  .  .  .  The  light  from  a  good  and  properly  cared  for  student's 
lamp,  or  other  reliable  lamp,  is  much  better  for  health  as  well  as  eyesight 
than  illuminating  gas ;  but  if  the  oil  is  poor,  or  the  wick  is  turned  so  low 
that  combustion  is  imperfect,  a  poisonous  vapor  mixed  with  floating  specks 
of  carbon  diffuses  itself  through  the  air,  and  instances  are  on  record  of 
severe  prostration  resulting  from  such  impurities. 

P.  208,  §  288  (tt.).  A  Simple  Test  for  Carbonic  Acid.— Br.  Angus 
Smith's  Household  Test  for  Carbonic  Acid  is  as  follows :  "  Procure  a  bot- 
tle holding  ten  and  a  half  fluid  ounces,  fill  it  with  the  air  of  the  room 
you  wish  to  examine,  by  blowing  it  in  with  a  bellows  or  sucking  it  in 
through  a  glass  tube  pushed  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  vial ;  pour  in  half 
an  ounce  of  lime-water,  and  after  corking  tightly,  shake  well  for  two  or 
three  minutes.  If,  after  a  short  time,  there  is  no  milky  appearance  of  the 
lime-water,  you  may  know  to  a  certainty  that  the  ten  ounces  of  air  in  the 
bottle  do  not  contain  enough  carbonic  acid  to  form  a  visible  precipitate  of 
carbonate  of  lime  (chalk)  in  the  lime-water,  and  this  has  been  proved  by 
careful  experiment  on  a  large  scale  to  be  equal  to  less  than  six-hundredths 
of  one  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  samjile  of  air  tested ;  a  quantity 
which  has  been  agreed  upon  by  some  high  sanitary  authorities  as  the  limit 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  387 

beyond  which  the  accumulation  of  this  impurity  (and  others,  perhaps 
much  more  noxious,  which  seem  always  to  accompany  it  when  it  arises 
from  human  or  animal  respiration)  is  injurious  to  health,  and  should  not 
be  permitted  to  occur."  —  Long  Life  and  How  to  Reach  It.  A  Health 
Primer,  by  J.  G.  Richardson,  M.D. 

P.  211,  §  294  (a.).  Poisonous  Wall  /»a/?ers. —Within  the  last  few 
years  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  physicians  and  chemists,  both  in  this 
country  and  Europe,  that  wall  papers  (especially  those  that  are  rough- 
ened or  "  flocked "  and  of  a  bright  green  color)  are  at  times  poisonous, 
owing  to  arsenical  substances  in  the  coloring.  The  arsenic  acts  as  a 
poison  by  being  diffused  in  the  dust  of  the  rooms,  or,  as  some  believe, 
in  a  gaseous  form  as  arsenuretted  hydrogen,  when  it  may  be  recog- 
nized by  a  "garlic-like  or  musty  odor."  The  phenomena  of  arsenical 
disease  ordinarily  produced  are  similar  to  those  attending  a  severe  cold, 
viz.,  an  irritation  of  the  eyes  and  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose  and 
throat.  The  irritation  may  extend  to  the  bronchial  tubes,  lungs,  and  lower 
portions  of  the  alimentary  canal,  or  the  poison  may  produce  skin  erup- 
tions, or  be  absorbed  in  such  quantity  as  to  produce  convulsions  and  vari- 
ous disturbances  of  the  nervous  system.  For  further  information  in  regard 
to  poisonous  wall  papers,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  investigations  made 
by  Dr.  Kedzie,  as  detailed  in  the  Reports  of  the  Michigan  State  Board  of 
Health. 

P.  211,  §  294  (a.).  Devitalized  Air  in  Dwellings.  —  "In  many  pri- 
vate houses,  houses  even  of  the  well-to-do  and  wealthy,  streams  of 
devitalized  air  are  nursed  with  the  utmost  care.  There  is  the  lumber- 
room  of  the  house,  in  which  all  kinds  of  incongruous  things  are  huddled 
away  and  excluded  from  light  and  fresh  air.  There  are  dark  under- 
stair  closets  in  which  cast-off  clothes,  charged  with  organic  de'bris  of 
the  body,  are  let  rest  for  days  or  even  weeks  together.  There  are  bed- 
rooms overstocked  with  furniture,  the  floors  covered  with  heavy  carpets 
in  which  are  collected  pounds  upon  pounds  of  organic  dust.  There  are 
dressing-rooms  in  which  are  stowed  away  old  shoes  and  well-packed 
drawers  of  well-worn  clothing.  There  are  dining-rooms  in  which  the 
odor  of  the  latest  jneal  is  never  absent,  and  from  the  sideboard  and  cup- 
boards of  which  the  smell  of  decomposing  fruit  or  cheese  is  always  ema- 
nating, etc.,  etc.  .  .  .  Under  such  conditions  thousands  of  families  live, 
children  grow  up,  and  old  people  die.  They  may  all  go  for  years  and. 
suffer  no  acute  disease,  and  those  of  the  family  whose  duty  calls  them 
daily  into  the  open  air  may  even  be  healthy ;  but  those  who  have  to 
remain  nearly  all  day  in  the  devitalized  atmosphere  of  the  home,  show  the 
fact  in  paleness  of  face,  languor  of  limb,  persistent  sense  of  weariness  and 
dullness  of  spirit.     Under  such  conditions  acute  disease,  epidemic  fever,  or 


388  APPENDIX  KOTES. 

other  actively  dangerous  malady  need  not  occur  unless  it  be  introduced 
from  without ;  but  the  home  is  ready  for  it  if  it  be  introduced."  —  Diseases 
of  Modern  Life.     Benjamin  Ward  Richardson,  M.D.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Eng. 

P.  211,  §  294  (6.).  Cleanliness  versus  Dirt.  —  "True  cleanliness  is  a 
matter  of  minutiae,  and  admits  of  no  subterfuge.  If  dirt  can  find  a 
crack,  a  ledge,  or  an  absorbent  surface  which  cannot  be  reached  by  the 
ordinary  method  of  cleansing,  there  dirt  will  accumulate ;  and  where  dirt 
is,  there  will  disease  be  also.  If  we  are  to  look  to  our  neighbors  for 
painstaking  cleanliness,  we  must  go  to  Holland  for  example,  where  it  is 
popularly  believed  that  no  gastronomic  injury  would  ensue  from  dining 
directly  off  the  flooring-boards  or  tiles.  Beyond  the  delightful  duty  of 
scrubbing  everything  which  is  not  painted,  the  Dutchman  and  his  wife 
find  no  such  esoteric  and  sanitary  delight  as  in  painting  everything 
which  cannot  be  scrubbed  or  rubbed  bright.  And  the  Dutchman  is 
right.  No  layer  upon  layer  of  paper  hangings,  with  brown,  gray,  or 
green  arsenical  dust  to  slowly  poison  the  more  susceptible  of  the  family. 
No  sham  plaster  walls,  porous  to  sewer-gas  and  corrupted  with  putrefied 
paste,  can  be  allowed.  If  we  have  lath  and  plaster,  let  it  be  painted;  and 
if  we  cannot  have  wainscot  or  mahogany  kept  brilliant  by  continual 
cleanly  friction  and  polish,  let  us  have  a  clean,  painted,  wooden  surface, 
as  artistic  in  tint  and  in  the  disposal  of  the  colors  and  decoration  as  taste 
and  means  will  afford  it ;  but  to  carry  out  a  determined  war  against  dirt 
and  disease,  let  us  have  paint.  These  are  no  longer  notions  peculiar  to 
the  Dutch.  They  are  sanitary  axioms  which  we  cannot  afford  to  ignore." 
—  Paper  on  Chemistry  of  Dirt.     H.  C.  Bartlett,  Ph.D.,  F.C.S.,  England. 

P.  212,  §  295  (a.).     Dr.  Richardson   on   Damp   Air  in   Houses.  —"It 

is  not  invariably  the  new  house  that  is  rendered  dangerous  by  being 
damp.  There  are  in  this  country  many  old  houses,  picturesquely  situated, 
which  are  not  less  dangerous.  The  stranger  passing  one  of  these  residences 
is  struck  by  its  beauty.  There  is  the  ancient  moat  around  it,  or  the  lake 
in  front  with  the  sailing-boat  and  swans,  the  summer-house  and  splendid 
trees  down  to  the  water's  edge.  The  stranger  may  well  enough  be  fasci- 
nated by  the  view,  but  let  him  inquire  and  he  will  too  often  find  a  truly 
ghostly  history  of  the  place.  He  will  be  told,  probably  with  some  exagger- 
ation of  the  truth,  that  the  house  is  unlucky,  that  no  one  who  has  lived 
in  it  has  reared  a  healthy  child,  and  that  a  traditional  malediction  taints 
the  place.  If  he  enter  the  house,  he  finds  a  basement  steaming  with  water 
vapor ;  walls  constantly  bedewed  with  moisture ;  cellars  coated  with  fungus 
and  mould;  drawing-rooms  and  dining-rooms  always,  except  in  the  very 
heat  of  summer,  ojipressive  from  moisture ;  bed-rooms,  the  windows  of 
which  are,  in  winter,  often  so  frosted  on  their  inner  surface,  from  conden- 
sation of  the  water  in  the  air  of  the  room^  that  all  day  they  are  coated 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  389 

with  ice.  The  malediction  on  the  young  nurtured  in  that  mansion  may 
not  be  so  deep  as  is  rumored,  and  it  is  much  less  obscure  than  is  imagined ; 
but  it  is  there,  and  its  name  is  '  damp.' "  —  Diseases  of  Modern  Life.  Dr. 
Benjamin  W.  Richardson. 

P.  213,  §  296  (a.).  The  Need  of  Model  Tenements.  —"The  persist- 
ence of  sickness  and  mortality  in  the  old  crowded  tenement  dwellings 
of  our  city,  and  the  rapid  and  very  great  falling  off  in  the  rates  of 
sickness  and  death  in  the  new  and  airy  sanitary  dwellings  like  Sir  Syd- 
ney Waterlow's  in  London,  and  Mr.  White's  in  Brooklyn,  or  like  the 
improved  districts  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  show  that  a  great  work  for 
the  physical  and  moral  improvement  of  the  common  classes,  and  for  the 
prevention  of  poverty  and  causes  of  pauperism,  must  be  undertaken  in 
plans  for  dwelling  reform  in  our  crowded  city.  The  homes  of  the  New 
York  City  poor  must  be  provided  with  sunlight,  fresh  air,  and  the  moral 
safeguards  of  real  domesticity.  The  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Com- 
pany, of  which  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  is  President,  in  London,  report  that 
in  their  nearly  3,000  tenements  there  are  no  fevers  and  deaths  by  conta- 
gious diseases,  and  in  Glasgow  the  health  officer  reports  that  in  the 
reformed  dwellings  he  has  not  heard  of  a  case  of  infectious  disease.  Let 
the  deadly  contagion  of  vices  and  crimes  be  exterminated  from  the  habita- 
tions of  the  poor,  and  let  the  natural  agencies  of  health  and  purity  sur- 
round and  fill  their  dwellings,  as  means  of  saving  from  pauperizing,  sick- 
ness, and  from  the  evils  that  medical  charities  and  penal  institutions 
cannot  cure." 

P.  214,  §  297  (a.).  Out-door  Air  for  Invalids.  — For  many  years,  con- 
sumption was  considered  only  as  an  hereditary  disease,  now  it  is  also 
known  to  be  one  of  the  results  of  bad  air,  poor  food,  damp  dwellings, 
etc.,  and  is  most  common  among  those  who  live  in  basements,  cellars, 
and  overcrowded  quarters.  A  certain  proportion  of  persons  so  afflicted 
can  be  cured,  by  living  in  a  pure,  dry  atmosphere,  by  good  nourishment, 
suitable  exercise,  warmth,  and  agreeable  surroundings.  The  climate  should  be 
such  that  the  sick  may  actually  live  a  large  part  of  the  time  in  the  open 
air.  The  importance  of  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  will  be  appreciated 
when  we  consider  .that  wild  animals  kept  in  confinement  often  die  from 
diseases  due  to  confined  air  or  an  insufficient  amount  of  air.  Monkeys 
are  especially  liable  to  die  from  consumption.  On  the  other  hand,  persons 
quite  frequently  recover  from  very  severe  diseases,  when  the  sick  rooms 
are  well  aired,  and  nothing  will  injure  the  average  patient  so  much  as  to 
shut  the  doors  and  windows,  stop  up  all  cracks,  and  then  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  in  the  room  in  the  fear  that  cold  will  be  caught.  An  abun- 
dance of  pure  air  properly  supplied  is  of  especial  importance  in  the 
prevention  and  treatment  of  consumption,  whether  we  consider  it  as 


390  APPENDIX    NOTES. 

an  hereditary  disease,  tlie  result  of  bad  hygienic  conditions,  or  as  a  para- 
sitic disease,  as  claimed  by  Dr.  Robert  Koch  of  Berlin.  This  gentleman, 
after  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  lower  animals,  believes  that  the 
contagious  element  is  a  peculiar  parasite  or  disease  germ  which  is  cast  off 
from  the  lungs  in  the  act  of  coughing.  Hereditary  tendencies,  bad  sanitary 
surroundings,  and  living  in  an  atmosphere  poisoned  in  part  by  the  breath 
of  consumptives,  all  tend  to  induce  lung  disease,  and  for  all  of  them  pure 
air  is  a  necessity. 

P.  214,  §  298  (a.).  Night  Air.  —  "  Beware  of  the  night  wind ;  be  sure 
and  close  your  windows  after  dark.  In  other  words,  beware  of  God's 
free  air ;  be  sure  and  infect  your  lungs  with  the  stagnant,  azotized,  and 
offensive  atmosphere  of  your  bedroom.  In  other  words,  beware  of  the 
rock  spring ;  stick  to  sewerage.  Is  night  air  injurious  ?  Is  there  a  single 
pretext  for  such  an  idea '  Since  the  day  of  creation  that  air  has  been 
breathed  with  impunity  by  millions  of  different  animals,  tender,  delicate 
creatures,  some  of  them  fawns,  lambs,  and  young  birds.  Thousand  of 
soldiers,  hunters,  and  lumbermen  sleep  every  night  in  tents  and  open 
sheds  without  the  least  injurious  consequences.  Men  in  the  last  stage  of 
consumption  have  recovered  by  adopting  a  semi-savage  mode  of  life,  and 
camping  out-doors  in  all  but  the  stormiest  nights." — Dr.  F.  L.  Oswald. 
Popular  Science  Monthly :  March,  1881. 

P.  216,  §  301  (a.).  The  Passage  of  Air  through  Plaster,  Bricl<s,  etc. 
— "  My  illustrious  preceptor.  Prof.  John  W.  Draper,  demonstrated,  many 
years  since,  by  a  series  of  ingenious  experiments,  the  facility  with  which 
gases  diffuse,  even  when  opposed  by  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  of 
twenty  atmospheres.  The  illustrations  exhibited  this  evening  warrant  us 
in  the  deduction  that  the  purity  of  the  air  in  our  buildings,  whether  private 
or  public,  is  due  not  only  to  ventilation  and  to  the  imperfect  work  of  the 
carpenter,  but  also  to  the  porosity  of  the  plaster,  and  the  brick  or  stone 
walls  through  which  diffusion  takes  place,  a  part  of  the  foul  air  within 
being  exchanged  for  the  fresh,  oxygen-abounding  air  from  without."  — 
R.  Ogden  Doremus,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

P.  217,  §  302  (a.).  Automatic  Ventilation.  —  As  instances  of  auto- 
matic ventilation,  may  be  mentioned  that  plan  in  use  in  the  cabins  of 
the  ferry-boats  plying  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  These  boats 
carry  thousands  of  persons  every  week.  Before  the  introduction  of 
the  automatic  ventilators,  the  air  of  the  cabins,  at  times  of  day  when 
the  passengers  were  most  numerous,  was  stifling  and  impure.  Since  their 
use,  a  very  perceptible  change  for  the  better  has  been  noticed.  The 
following  are  sometimes  the  results  of  non-automatic  ventilation :  In  an 
institution  for  children  the  ventilators  were  open  upon  the  doctor's  visit, 


APPENDIX   >sOTES.  391 

but  a  few  moments  after  were  found  filled  with  old  clothes.  In  a  large 
school,  where  the  air  was  impure  and  the  cause  of  sickness,  an  investi- 
gation showed  that  the  ventilating  apparatus,  though  in  itself  good,  was 
of  no  real  value,  for  the  janitor  used  the  fresh-air  flue  of  the  furnace  as 
a  chicken-coop,  and  the  janitor's  boy  the  ventilator  in  the  roof  as  a 
pigeon-house. 

P.  218,  §  305  (a.).  The  Amount  of  Air  needed  for  Ventilation.  —"It 
is  found  by  experience  that  when  the  room  contains  two  hundred  and 
fifty  cubic  feet  per  scholar,  it  is  spacious  enough  to  allow  of  the  rapid 
diffusion  of  air  without  the  production  of  perceptible  currents.  This  may 
be  stated  in  a  form  easier  for  use,  viz. :  The  floor  ought  to  contain  twenty 
square  feet  for  each  scholar,  and  the  ceiling  ought  to  be  twelve  and  a  half 
or  thirteen  feet  high.  Probably  this  is  more  than  is  absolutely  required 
by  the  youngest  children."  —  Sanitary  Requirements  in  School  Architecture. 
Dr.  D.  F.  Lincoln,  Boston. 

"  The  only  safe  principle  in  dealing  with  the  subject  is  to  have  a  large 
margin  for  contingencies ;  and  the  question  really  is  not  whether  600 
cubic  feet  per  man  be  too  much,  but  whether  600  cubic  feet  per  man  be 
enough  for  all  the  purposes  of  warming,  ventilation,  and  comfort.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  question  of  cubic  space  is  simply  a  question  of  ventila- 
tion, but  it  is  rather  a  question  as  to  the  possibility  of  ventilation.  The 
more  beds  or  encumbrances  you  have  in  a  room  with  a  limited  cubic 
space,  the  more  obstruction  you  have  to  ventilation.  The  fewer  the  beds, 
the  more  easy  it  is  to  ventilate  the  rooms.  There  are  fewer  nooks  and 
corners,  fewer  surfaces  opposed  to  the  movement  of  the  air,  and  less  stag- 
nation."—  Report  of  Barracks  Improvement  Commission. 

P.  219,  §  308  [a.).  — "Instructions  for  Disinfection  {prepared  for  the 
National  Board  of  Health).  —  Disinfection  is  the  destruction  of  the  poisons 
of  infectious  and  contagious  diseases.  Deodorizers,  or  substances  which 
destroy  smells,  are  not  necessarily  disinfectants,  and  disinfectants  do  not 
necessarily  have  an  odor.  Disinfection  cannot  compensate  for  want  of 
cleanliness,  nor  of  ventilation. 

"I.  Disinfectants  to  be  Employed.  — (1)  Roll  sulphur  (brimstone) 
for  fumigation.  (2)  Sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  dissolved  in  water  in  the 
proportion  of  one  and  a  half  pounds  to  the  gallon :  for  soil,  sewers,  etc. 
(3)  Sulphate  of  zinc  and  common  salt,  dissolved  together  in  water  in  the 
proportions  of  four  ounces  sulphate  and  two  ounces  salt  to  the  gallon  : 
for  clothing,  bed-linen,  etc. 

'«  Note.  —  Carbolic  acid  is  not  included  in  the  above  list  for  the  following  reasons  :  it 
is  very  difficult  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  commercial  article,  and  the  purchaser  can 
never  be  certain  of  securing  it  of  proper  strength;  it  is  expensive,  when  of  good  quality, 


392  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

and  experience  has  shown  that  It  must  be  employed  in  comparatively  large  quantities  to 
be  of  any  use;  it  is  liable  by  its  strong  odor  to  give  a  false  sense  of  security. 

"II.  How  TO  Use  Disinfectants.  —  (1)  In  the  Sick-room. — The  most 
available  agents  are  fresh  air  and  cleanliness.  The  clothing,  towels,  bed- 
linen,  etc.,  should,  on  removal  from  the  patient,  and  before  they  are  taken 
from  the  room,  be  placed  in  a  pail  or  tub  of  the  zinc  solution,  boiling  hot, 
if  possible.  All  discharges  should  either  be  received  in  vessels  containing 
copperas  solution,  or,  when  this  is  impracticable,  should  be  immediately 
covered  with  copperas  solution.  All  vessels  used  about  the  patient  should 
be  cleansed  with  the  same  solution.  Unnecessary  furniture,  especially 
that  which  is  stuffed,  carpets  and  hangings,  should,  when  possible,  be 
removed  from  the  room  at  the  outset;  otherwise  they  should  remain  for 
subsequent  fumigation  and  treatment.  (2)  Fumigation  with  sulphur  is 
the  only  practicable  method  for  disinfecting  the  house.  For  this  purpose 
the  rooms  to  be  disinfected  must  be  vacated.  Heavy  clothing,  blankets, 
bedding,  and  other  articles  which  cannot  be  treated  with  zinc  solution, 
should  be  opened  and  exposed  during  fumigation,  as  directed  below. 
Close  the  rooms  as  tightly  as  possible,  place  the  sulphur  in  iron  pans  sup- 
ported upon  bricks  placed  in  wash-tubs  containing  a  little  water,  set  it  on 
fire  by  hot  coals  or  with  the  aid  of  a  spoonful  of  alcohol,  and  allow  the 
room  to  remain  closed  for  twenty-four  hours.  For  a  room  about  ten  feet 
square,  at  least  two  pounds  of  sulphur  should  be  used ;  for  larger  rooms, 
proportionally  increased  quantities.  (3)  Premises.  —  Cellars,  yards,  sta- 
bles, gutters,  privies,  cesspools,  water-closets,  drains,  sewers,  etc.,  should 
be  frequently  and  liberally  treated  with  copperas  solution.  The  copperas 
solution  is  easily  prepared  by  hanging  a  basket  containing  about  sixty 
pounds  of  copperas  in  a  barrel  of  water.  (4)  Body  and  Bed-clothing, 
etc.  —  It  is  best  to  burn  all  articles  which  have  been  in  contact  with  per- 
sons sick  with  contagious  or  infectious  diseases.  Articles  too  valuable  to 
be  destroyed  should  be  treated  as  follows:  (a)  Cotton,  linen,  flannels, 
blankets,  etc.,  should  be  treated  with  the  boiling-hot  zinc  solution ;  intro- 
duce piece  by  piece,  secure  thorough  wetting,  and  boil  for  at  least  half  an 
hour,  {h)  Heavy  woollen  clothing,  silks,  furs,  stuffed  bed-covers,  beds, 
and  other  articles  which  cannot  be  treated  with  the  zinc  solution,  should 
be  hung  in  the  room  during  fumigation,  their  surfaces  thoroughly  exposed, 
and  pockets  turned  inside  out.  Afterward  they  should  be  hung  in  the 
open  air,  beaten  and  shaken.  Pillows,  beds,  stuffed  mattresses,  uphol- 
stered furniture,  etc.,  should  be  cut  open,  the  contents  spread  out,  and 
thoroughly  fumigated.  Carpets  are  best  fumigated  on  the  floor,  but 
should  afterward  be  removed  to  the  open  air  and  thoroughly  beaten. 
(5)  Corpses  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  a  zinc  solution  of  double 
strength ;  should  then  be  wrapped  in  a  sheet  wet  with  the  zinc  solution, 
and  buried  at  once.     Metallic,  metal-lined,  or  air-tight  cofRns  should  be 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  393 

used  when  possible ;  certainly  when  the  body  is  to  be  transported  for  any 

considerable  distance. 

"  George  F.  Barker,  M.D,,  Universitij  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia ; 
C.  F.  Chandler,  M.D.,  CoU.  Phi/s.  and  Surgs.,  Health  Dept.,  Neiv 
York;  Henry  Draper,  M.D.,  University  of  City  of  New  York;  Ed- 
ward G.  Janeway,  M.D.,  Bellevue  Medical  College,  Health  Dept.,  New 
York;  Ira  Remsen,  M.D.,  John  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. ; 
S.  O.  Vanderpoel,  Health  Dept.,  New  York,  Health  Officer  Port  of 
New  York." 

P.  219,  §  309  (a.).  Light  as  a  Stimulus  to  Respiration.  —"It  has 
been  an  axiom  from  time  immemorial  that,  for  health,  sleep  should  be 
taken  during  the  still  hours  of  night,  and  not  during  the  day.  The 
example  of  the  ruddy,  healthy  peasant,  who  retires  to  rest  with  his 
cattle,  and  is  up  with  the  lark,  has  been  quoted  a  thousand  times.  It 
appears  to  me,  however,  that  the  undeniable  fact  of  exposure  to  the  light 
of  day  being  an  element  of  health  which  vivifies  and  reddens  the  blood, 
was  never  satisfactorily  explained  until  the  publication  of  the  experiments 
of  the  late  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  of  the  Brompton  Hospital.  Dr.  Smith  has 
proved  that  light  is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  respiration;  that  under  the 
influence  of  daylight  one-third  more  atmospheric  air  enters  the  lungs  than 
under  darkness,  or  even  under  exposure  to  artificial  light.  In  other 
words,  if,  in  daylight,  during  a  given  time,  six  hundred  cubic  inches  of 
atmospheric  air  were  inspired,  during  the  same  time  at  night  only  four 
hundred  would  enter  the  lungs ;  a  powerful  additional  reason  and  argu- 
ment for  pure  air  at  night  during  sleep.  As  the  oxygenation  and  subse- 
quent reddening  of  the  blood  depend  on  its  contact  with  atmospheric  air 
in  the  lungs  during  respiration,  it  is  clear,  if  we  accept  the  above  state- 
ments, that  the  more  the  body  is  exposed  to  sunlight,  the  more  oxygen  it 
will  imbibe.  As  a  necessary  sequel,  the  more  oxygen  physiologically 
enters  the  economy,  through  the  functions  of  respiration,  the  more  per- 
fectly will  all  the  vital  processes  which  require  oxygen  be  performed."  — 
Nutrition  in  Health  and  Disease.     Bennett. 

P.  227,  §  316  (a.),  f/ene  Ce//s.  —  "The  cell  of  the  nervous  tissue, 
like  that  of  all  other  tissues,  is  the  essential,  living  part.  In  it  go  on 
the  mysterious  molecular  changes,  which  are  presented  to  us  as  nervous 
action.  To  it  the  surrounding  structures  are  entirely  subservient.  It 
is  the  textural  Rome  to  which  all  roads  turn.  It  is  upheld  by  the 
connective  tissue ;  it  is  nourished  by  the  capillaries  and  lymphatics ;  it 
is  drained  by  the  venules.  Although  it  differs  from  other  cells  in  many 
ways  that  are  strongly  marked,  in  none  is  it  more  distinctive  than  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  placed  in  direct,  or  almost  direct,  communication  with  dis- 


394  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

tant  structures  by  fibres  that  conduct  sensations  to  it  and  by  otliers  that 
convey  actions /rom  it.  The  type  of  a  nervous  organism,  then,  is  a  cell,  to 
which  are  attached  conducting  fibres  for  sensation  and  motion  respectively. 
The  cells  being  clustered  together  in  what  is  known  as  gray  matter,  and 
the  conducting  fibres  being  composed  of  so-called  white  matter,  all  ner- 
vous structures  are  made  up  of  gray  or  cellular  and  wliite  or  conducting 
matter,  be  the  relative  proportions  of  each,  and  the  form  of  the  particular 
organ,  what  they  may.  Each  group  of  cells  —  perhaps  the  science  of  the 
future  will  enable  us  to  say  each  cell  —  has  an  intelligence  of  its  own,  which 
has  long  been  beclouded  by  the  name  of  *  function.'  This  intelligence,  mis- 
named function,  is  adequate  to  the  purpose  of  that  particular  group  of  cells. 
If  they  be  the  cells  of  a  jelly-fish,  they  enable  the  animal  to  float  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  to  nourish  itself,  and  to  seize  its  prey.  If  they  be  the 
cells  of  a  bee,  they  enable  it  to  organize  all  the  wondrous  economy  of  the 
hive,  —  to  select  its  queen,  to  eliminate  the  drones,  to  build  the  mathe- 
matical cell.  If  they  be  the  cells  of  the  lion,  they  form  the  anatomical 
substratum  of  all  the  beast's  kingly  and  ferocious  habits.  Finally,  when 
they  become  the  cells  of  the  human  gray  matter,  they  are  intelligent  still, 
varying  in  the  degree  of  that  intelligence  as  it  mounts  from  the  lowly 
lower  end  of  the  spinal  cord,  increasing  in  complexity  as  it  ascends,  until 
it  culminates  in  the  most  wonderful  gray  matter  of  all  species, — the  cortex 
of  the  cerebrum,  the  seat  of  the  mind. 

"  From  the  foregoing  statements  it  follows  that  all  nervous  organisms  are 
composed  of  numerous  foci  of  cellular  intelligence,  intercommunicating 
and  bound  together  into  one  harmonious  whole  by  the  white  or  conduct- 
ing fibres."  —  In  the  Annals  of  the  Anatomical  and  Surgical  Society. 
Dr.  Landon  Carter  Gray. 


P.  229,  §  319  (a.).  The  Weight  of  the  Brain.  —"The  average  male 
brain  (in  Europeans)  is  49.5  oz. ;  the  female,  44  oz.  The  brain  of  Cuvier, 
the  naturalist,  weighed  64.5  oz.,  and  that  of  Daniel  Webster  53.5  oz. 
The  brains  of  idiots  have  been  found  to  vary  in  weight  from  27  oz.  to 
as  low  as  8.5  oz.  The  brains  of  the  insane  are  said  to  be  2\  per  cent, 
below  the  average  of  the  sane.  Tall  men,  as  a  rule,  have  larger  brains 
than  small  men.  .  .  .  The  maximum  size  of  the  brain  is  reached,  not  in 
human  beings,  but  in  the  elephant  tribe ;  and  after,  the  whales,  whose 
ponderous  bodies  demand  an  enormous  muscular  expenditure.  The  ele- 
phant's brain  weighs  from  8  to  10  lbs. ;  the  whale's  brain  is  said  to  weigh 
from  5  to  8  lbs.  ...  In  addition  to  the  propulsion  of  the  muscles,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  nerve  force  must  be  expended  in  supporting  or  aid- 
ing the  processes  of  organic  life,  —  digestion,  respiration,  circulation,  and 
other  operations."  —  Mind  and  Bodij.     Bain. 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  396 

P.  232,  §  324  (a.).     Dr.  Jacob!  on  the  Development  of  the  Brain  in 

Children.  — "Between  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  the  base  of  the  brain  grows 
very  rapidly ;  the  frontal  bone  protrudes  anteriorly  and  grows  upward. 
The  anterior  portion  grows  considerably,  but  still  the  white  substance  and 
middle  portion  of  brain  are  prevalent.  These  are  the  organs  for  the  re- 
ceptive faculties  and, memory.  About  this  time  learning  ought  to  com- 
mence in  earnest.  All  the  above  figures  point  to  the  end  of  the  seventh 
year  as  the  period  of  beginning  mental  work.  But  the  gray  substance  is 
also  developing  at  that  period.  It  ought  to  be  influenced  to  a  certain 
degree,  like  a  young  tree  in  the  time  of  its  growth,  without,  however, 
being  strained.  Many  organs  in  the  brain,  —  many  functions.  Neglect 
none ;  exercise  all  gently.  It  is  a  mistake  to  exercise  one  faculty  only. 
Our  text-books,  in  the  shape  of  catechisms,  exercise  the  memory  only, 
and  thereby  fatigue  and  exhaust.  The  compound  exercise  consisting  in 
walking,  with  its  changes  and  cooperative  action,  is  less  fatiguing  than 
standing  on  a  single  leg.  Learning  by  heart  is  not  learning,  and  reciting 
is  not  thinking;  just  as  little  as  deglutition  is  digestion." — Trans.  N.  Y. 
Academy  of  Medicine.     A.  Jacobi,  M.D. 

P.  253,  §  349  (a.).    How  the  Nervous  System  is  Injured  by  Overwork. — 

"  You  see,  my  dear  working  friends.  I  am  great  upon  sparing  your  strength 
and  taking  things  cannily.  *  All  very  well,'  say  you,  *  it  is  easy  speaking, 
and  saying  "  Take  it  easy  " ;  but  if  the  pot's  on  the  fire,  it  maun  bile.'  It 
must :  but  you  needn't  poke  up  the  fire  forever,  and  you  may  now  and 
then  set  the  kettle  on  tiie  hob  and  let  it  sing,  instead  of  leaving  it  to  burn 
its  bottom  out.  I  had  a  friend  who  injured  himself  by  overwork.  One 
day  I  asked  the  servant  if  any  person  had  called,  and  was  told  that  some- 
one had  *  Who  was  it  ?  *  *  Oh,  it's  the  little  gentleman  that  aye  rins 
when  he  walks  !'  So  I  wish  this  age  would  walk  more,  and  *  rin  *  less.  A 
man  can  walk  farther  and  longer  than  he  can  run,  and  it  is  poor  saving  to 
get  out  of  breath.  ...  I  am  constantly  seeing  men  who  suffer,  and  indeed 
die,  from  living  too  fast ;  from  true,  though  not  consciously  immoral,  dissi- 
pation or  scattering  of  their  lives.  Many  a  man  is  bankrupt  in  constitu- 
tion at  forty-five,  and  either  takes  out  a  cessio  of  himself  to  the  grave,  or 
goes  on  paying  ten  per  cent  for  his  stock-in-trade :  he  spends  his  capital 
instead  of  merely  spending  what  he  makes,  or,  better  still,  laying  up  a 
purse  for  the  days  of  darkness  and  old  age.  A  queer  man,  forty  years 
ago,  Mr.  Slate,  or,  as  he  was  called,  Schlate,  —  who  was  too  clever  and 
not  clever  enough,  and  had  not  wisdom  to  use  his  wit,  always  scheming, 
full  of  '  go '  but  never  getting  on,  —  was  stopped  by  his  friend.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (that  wonderful  friend  of  us  all,  to  whom  we  owe  Jeannie  Deans 
and  Rob  Roy,  Meg  Merriles  and  Dandie  Dinmont,  Jinglin'  Geordie, 
Cuddie  Headrigg,  and  the  immortal  Bailie),  one  day,  in  Princess  Street. 


396  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

*  How  are  ye  getting  on,  Schlate  1 '  '  Oo,  just  the  auld  thing,  Sir  Walter  ; 
ma  pennies  a'  gang  on  tippenm/  eerands.'  And  so  it  is  with  our  nervous 
power,  with  our  vital  capital,  with  the  pence  of  life,  —  many  of  them 
go  on  '  tippenny  eerands/  We  are  forever  getting  our  bills  renewed, 
till  down  comes  the  poor  and  damaged  concern  witli  dropsy  or  con- 
sumption, blazing-fever  madness  or  palsy."  —  Spare  Hours.  Dk.  John 
Brown. 

P.  254,  §  350  (a.).  Wear  and  Tear  of  the  5o(//. —"  Again  let  me 
impress  this  truth  upon  you,  that  it  is  not  pure  brain  work  but  brain  ex- 
citement or  brain  distress,  that  eventuates  in  brain  degeneration  and 
disease.  Calm,  vigorous,  severe  mental  labor  may  be  far  pursued  without 
risk  or  detriment ;  but  whenever  an  element  of  feverish  anxiety,  wearing 
responsibility,  or  vexing  chagrin  is  introduced,  then  come  danger  and 
damage."  —  Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  of  the  Wakefield  Asylum. 

"  I  have  called  these  hints  Wear  and  Tear,  because  this  title  clearly  and 
briefly  points  out  my  meaning.  Wear  is  a  natural  and  legitimate  result 
of  lawful  use,  and  is  what  we  all  have  to  put  up  with  as  the  result  of  years 
of  activity  of  brain  and  body.  Tear  is  another  matter ;  it  comes  of  hard 
or  evil  usage  of  body  or  engine,  of  putting  things  to  wrong  purposes,  using 
a  chisel  for  a  screwdriver,  a  penknife  for  a  gimlet.  Long  strain,  or  the 
sudden  demand  of  strength  from  weakness,  causes  tear.  Wear  comes  of 
use,  tear  of  abuse.  .  .  .  Why  is  it  that  an  excess  of  physical  labor  is  better 
borne  than  a  like  excess  of  mental  labor?  The  simple  answer  is,  that 
mental  overwork  is  harder,  because,  as  a  rule,  it  is  closet,  or  counting- 
room,  or,  at  least,  indoor,  work,  —  sedentary,  in  a  word.  The  man  who  is 
intently  using  his  brain  is  not  collaterally  employing  any  other  organs,  and 
the  more  intense  his  application  the  less  locomotive  does  he  become."  — 
Wear  and  Tear.     S.  Weir  Mitchell,  M.D. 

P.  254,  §  350  (6.).  The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Hysteria.  —The  term 
Ht/steria  is  ordinarily  applied  by  the  laity  to  alternating  conditions  of 
the  emotions,  but  by  medical  writers,  refers  to  various  phenomena  of  dis- 
turbed nervous  force.  It  can  simulate  every  known  disease.  The  emo- 
tional variety,  while  it  may  be  the  result  of  incipient  disease  of  the 
nervous  system  or  some  other  part  of  the  body,  of  overwork,  or  of  worry, 
is  too  often  due  to  the  concentration  of  one's  thoughts  upon  one's  self,  the 
desire  for  notoriety,  etc.  If  hysteria  is  merely  "  a  bad  habit,"  it  should  be 
broken  up,  not  only  for  the  welfare  of  the  individual  afflicted,  but  because 
impressible  friends  may  acquire  similar  habits,  by  imitation.  The  cure 
consists  in  a  change  of  surroundings  (of  habitation,  companions,  etc.),  and 
in  hygienic  measures.  If  the  hysteria  is  the  result  of  disease,  it  needs  the 
best  medical  aid,  for  it  is  then  a  serious  affection.  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell, 
in   speaking   of    the    fact    that    men   as   well    as   women    are   liable   to 


■      APPENDIX   NOTES.  397 

hysteria,  says :  "  I  have  many  a  time  seen  soldiers  who  had  ridden  boldly 
with  Sheridan  or  fought  gallantly  with  Grant,  become,  under  the  influence 
of  painful  nerve  wounds,  as  irritable  and  hysterical  as  the  veriest  girl." 
In  reference  to  the  bad  influences  which  hysterical  persons  exert,  he  writes 
trutlifuUy :  "A  hysterical  girl  is,  as  Wendell  Holmes  has  said  in  his  deci- 
sive phrase,  a  vampire  who  sucks  the  blood  of  the  healthy  people  about 
her,  and  I  may  add  that  pretty  surely  where  there  is  one  hysterical  girl, 
there  will  be  soon  or  late  two  sick  women." 

P.  255,  §  351  (a.).     The  Time  to  be  Devoted  to  Mental  Labor. —  In 

regard  to  the  number  of  hours  of  mental  labor  per  day  each  one  should 
pursue,  there  has  been  and  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinions.  Bulwer 
placed  the  number  at  three,  while  Sir  Matthew  Hale  allotted  six.  It  is 
said  that  on  being  asked  how  it  was  that  he  could  do  so  much  and  such 
excellent  intellectual  work,  giving  only  three  hours  a  day  to  it,  Bulwer 
replied :  "  Because  I  work  three  hours  evei-j/  day,  never  allowing  myself  to 
do  more  even  when  in  the  mood,  and  always  filling  the  three  hours  even 
when  I  may  be  disinclined  to  work."  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  by 
the  mental  labor  referred  to  above  is  meant  consecutive  and  earnest  intel 
lectual  effort,  such  as  is  adapted  to  one's  ability,  not  the  spasmodic  or 
half-hearted  work  so  often  mistaken  by  novices  for  real  work. 

P.  265,  §  367  (a.)     What  the  Sense  of  Smell  does  for  Us.  —  *'  Of  all 

our  senses,  smell  is  the  one  that  soonest  gets  out  of  practice,  so  much 
so  that  numbers  of  people  really  do  not  perceive  disagreeable  smells 
at  all.  If  they  always  accustomed  themselves  to  take  notice,  and  to  use 
their  noses,  they  never  would  consent  to  live  in  the  horrid  air  they  do 
That  is  a  grand  use  of  the  sense  of  smell.  It  tells  a  person  who  attends  to 
it,  that  there  is  some  bad  or  injurious  thing  mixing  itself  in  the  air.  A 
sensible  person  then  sets  to  work  to  get  rid  of  that  thing,  whatever  it  may 
be,  and  to  make  his  air  clean  again.  A  stupid  person  takes  no  notice,  and 
then  his  nose  gets  used  to  the  disagreeable  smell,  and  leaves  off  perceiving 
it."  —  J.  Berners.     Lessons  on  Health 

P.  283,  §  384  (a.).  The  Importance  of  the  Convergence  of  the  Eyes 
In  Vision.  — "To  direct  both  eyes  to  the  same  point  requires  a  delicately 
balanced  associated  action  of  several  muscles  of  each  eye.  In  any  part  of 
the  body,  where  a  certain  set  of  muscles  are  accustomed  to  act  together  in 
a  given  direction,  this  particular  combination  of  movements  becomes  natu- 
ral and  easy,  and  any  other  comparatively  difficult.  This  may  be  appre- 
ciated, for  instance,  by  any  one  who  has  undertaken  to  drive  a  nail  into  the 
ceiling,  and  has  experienced  the  fatigue  of  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  neck 
and  back  that  follows  almost  immediately.  We  are  accustomed  always,  in 
converging  the  eyes  towards  any  small  object,  at  the  same  time  to  direct 
them  downwards,  as  the  object  is  usually  held  in  the  hand,  or  lies  on 


398  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

something  before  us,  below  the  level  of  the  eyes.  This  facility  of  turning 
both  eyes  inwards  and  downwards  at  the  same  time  has  not  only  been 
acquired  by  the  individual,  but  has  been  inherited  from  his  ancestors,  and 
has  become  a  part  of  his  nature ;  so  that  the  association  of  convergence 
with  any  other  than  a  downward  movement  demands  an  extraordinary 
effort.  This  is  a  cause  of  fatigue  in  looking  at  pictures  hung  high  in  a 
gallery.  Considerable  interest  has  been  excited  recently  by  an  affection 
noticed  in  miners,  and  called  '  miner's  nystagmus,'  in  which  the  external 
muscles  of  the  eyeball  seem  to  lose  their  balance,  and  the  eyes  continually 
oscillate.  It  is  thought  to  result  from  the  unnatural  position  of  the  eyes 
in  working  at  the  roof  of  the  subterranean  cavern  in  which  these  men  pass 
their  lives."  —  Eyesight  and  How  to  Care  for  it.     American  Health  Primer, 

P.  284,  §386  (a.).  Test  for  Color-Blindness.—Oi  late,  in  certain 
countries,  much  attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  subject  of  color-blindness, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  other  colors  than  red  and  green  should  be 
used  for  signals.  In  these  countries,  all  railroad  engineers,  pilots,  switch- 
men, etc.,  are  tested  as  to  color-blindness.  Such  examinations  should  be 
universal.  In  old  people  in  whom  the  lens  is  liable  to  be  yellowish, 
colors  must  be  very  bright  before  they  can  be  readily  distinguished 
From  examinations  made  by  Dr.  Jeffries  of  Boston,  he  concludes  that 
about  one  male  in  every  twenty-five  is  color-blind,  and  that  color-blindness 
is  much  less  frequent  among  women.  It  can  be  easily  tested  in  schools, 
etc.  (where  it  is  found  to  be  quite  common)  by  Holmgren's  method.  "  It 
consists  in  providing  a  large  pile  of  worsteds  of  different  colors,  and 
requiring  the  person  examined  to  select  the  skeins  which  resemble  the 
sample  shown  by  the  examiners.  This  method  is  simple,  rapid,  and  scien 
tific,  and  requires  no  naming  of  colors,  which  is  a  frequent  source  of  fal- 
lacy and  confusion.  Even  the  normal-eyed  are  often  at  variance  about 
color  nomenclature.  By  this  method  a  hundred  persons  may  be  accu- 
rately examined  in  an  hour,  and  without  error." 

P  285,  §  387  (a.).  The  Disadvantages  of  Short  Sight.  — Short  sight 
is  said  to  be  seldom  found  among  farmers,  seamen,  and  Indians,  but  is 
quite  common  in  large  cities,  among  students,  engravers,  artists,  etc., 
especially  if  they  work  by  a  flickering  light,  or  one  that  shines  brightly 
from  in  front  directly  upon  the  work.  From  an  examination  of  the  eyes 
of  pupils  between  six  and  twenty-one  years  of  age,  in  various  schools 
throughout  the  country,  by  Drs.  E.  G.  Loring,  R,  H.  Derby,  A.  R. 
Mathewson,  and  J.  S.  Prout,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  among  the 
lower  classes  3.5  per  cent  were  near-sighted,  and  among  the  higher  26} 
per  cent.  In  Germany  the  percentages  are  said  to  be  even  greater ;  and 
it  is  rare  to  find  army  ofiicers  who  do  not  wear  spectacles.  It  may  be 
that  if   as   large  a  proportion  of   persons  in   this   country  with   optical 


APPENDIX  NOTES.  399 

defects  should  wear  glasses  as  is  the  case  in  Germany,  we  would  be 
considered  as  equally  near-sighted.  "A  child  may  be  thought  a  dul- 
lard, and  to  have  no  aptitude  for  observation  or  learning;  he  may  be 
counted  cold-hearted  and  unresponsive  when  his  face  does  not  light  up  at 
the  smile  of  his  mother  or  the  caress  of  his  sister ;  he  may  be  esteemed  sul- 
len or  stupid  ;  he  may  be  counted  a  bad  playfellow ;  he  may  be  thought 
eccentric  or  peculiar  because  he  does  not  behave  like  other  children.  All 
this  and  more  may  be  the  character  ascribed  to  him  because  his  misfor- 
tune is  to  have  bad  sight.  Beside  this,  it  is  a  truth  in  mental  philosophy 
that  exactly  such  a  character  may  be  fastened  upon  him  for  life,  because 
in  his  young  days  he  was  cut  off  from  enjoyment  of  the  visible  world  on 
terms  of  equality  with  his  fellows  Do  we  not  know  that  dim-sighted 
persons  are  apt  to  be  queer?  If  their  deficiencies  had  been  noted  and 
corrected  at  an  early  stage  of  life,  who  can  say  how  much  more  symmet- 
rical would  have  been  their  adult  character,  and  how  much  happiness 
society  and  the  family  might  have  enjoyed  from  them."  —  Eye  Troubles  in 
General  Practice.     Prof.  H.  D.  No  yes  of  New  York. 

P.  284,  Note  (a.).  Dr.  Snelling's  Test  Types. — In  order  that  read- 
ers may  ascertain  whether  they  have  normal  vision,  a  (partial)  list  of 
Professor  Siiellin's  test  types  is  subjoined.  The  figures  over  the  letters 
indicate  the  number  of  feet  at  which  the  letters  should  be  distinctly 
legible. 

1  ft.  SVa  in. 

DSLAGHOTEU 

2  ft.  6  in. 

ULHOEDTSFG 

3  ft.  31/2  in. 
FOECHSUTDL 

4  ft.  6  in. 

ECLSTUFDOH 

6  ft.  11/3  in. 

SLFDCEUHTO 

7  ft. 
DFSEOLUHCT 

TCHPFSEULO 


400  APPENDIX  NOTES. 

P.  287,  §  391  {a.).  Injurious  Effects  of  Certain  Occupations  upon  the 
Eyesight.  — "The  knowledge  of  the  injurious  effects  of  certain  kinds  of 
schooling  upon  vision  is  not  a  new  acquisition  ;  for  Beer  wrote  more  than 
sixty  years  ago, '  He  who  has  taken  the  fruitless  pains  as  often  as  I  have,  to 
try  and  impress  upon  parents  and  friends,  in  the  most  friendly  manner  and 
upon  the  most  convincing  grounds,  the  mischievous  effect  upon  the  eyes 
of  growing  children  of  the  forcing-house  system  of  the  present  day,  will 
still  be  disheartened  to  find  his  well-intended  counsel,  based  upon  long 
experience,  and  often  repeated,  either  entirely  neglected,  or  listened  to 
only  by  a  few/  .  .  .  Because  people  hold  the  imperfectly  understood 
principle  that  children  should  be  constantly  occupied,  there  is  at  all 
hours  of  the  day  a  master  at  hand.  There  is  reading,  writing,  language- 
learning,  drawing,  arithmetic,  embroidery,  singing,  piano  and  guitar-play- 
ing without  end,  until  the  persecuted  victims  are  rendered  pale,  weak,  and 
sickly,  and  to  such  an  extent  short-sighted  or  weak-sighted,  that  finally 
counsel  must  be  obtained.  ...  Of  what  avail  is  it  to  many  charming 
girls,  many  estimable  women,  that  as  children  they  were  regarded  as 
prodigies,  when  the  soundness  of  their  eyes  and  the  acuteness  of  their 
vision  has  been  sacrificed." — Eyesight,  Good  and  Bad.  R.  B.  Carter, 
F.R.C.S. 

P.  305,  §  403  (a.).  Sense  Education.  — Since  writing  what  he  has  in 
connection  with  the  development  of  the  voice  in  those  born  deaf  or  with 
feeble  minds,  the  writer  has  become  acquainted  with  the  excellent  work 
accomplished  by  "  sense  education  "  in  the  Seguin  Physiological  School, 
New  York.  The  following  extract  from  a  newspaper  article,  refernng 
especially  to  the  education  of  the  voice  in  the  feeble-minded  at  the 
above-named  school,  is  so  apropos  that  it  is  appended :  "  There  is  that 
most  depressing  sight,  the  mouth  of  the  child  of  feeble  mind  and  body. 
Open  it  stands,  gaping  wide,  with  its  pendulous  lower  lip.  The  facial 
muscles  are  ignorant  of  their  duty.  It  is  not  will-power  alone  which 
will  ever  bring  those  lips  together.  Still  this  can  be  and  is  corrected 
The  child  is  taught  to  close  it.  Constantly  the  gentle  teacher  brings 
her  finger  to  the  child's  lip,  and  an  effort  is  made,  after  a  while,  by  a 
self-sustained  will,  to  close  it.  Sometimes  a  straw  is  held  in  the  mouth 
to  show  the  child  how  to  grasp  it  with  the  lips.  After  a  while,  when  his 
attention  is  occupied  with  something  else,  he  forgets  to  close  it.  The 
act  of  having  his  mouth  open  is  noticed,  and  he  shuts  it  at  a  word  of 
command.  He  may  have  been  perfectly  unable  a  few  months  ago  to 
arrest  a  flow  of  saliva  from  his  mouth  ;  but  now  this  secretion,  which  was 
over  abundant,  has  ceased.  He  might  have  been  once  a  saddening  sight 
to  see ;  but  now  much  of  that  idiotic  blankness  has  gone.  But  is  it  sim 
ply  the  child's  appearance  which  has  been  improved  ?     No.     A  thousand 


APPENDIX   NOTES.  401 

things  may  arise  from  this  simple  mouth-instruction  which  are  of  advan- 
tage to  the  child  in  the  sense  of  a  brain-awakening.  His  speech  has  been 
thick  and  unintelligible.  How  could  the  poor  lad  pronounce  a  word  prop- 
erly, hampered  as  he  was  with  rigid  lips  7  Now  he  is  taught  to  pronounce 
letters  properly.  Every  sound  of  every  letter  may  have  to  be  taught  him. 
The  lips  become  pliant,  vibrate  at  last,  and  from  what  was  a  dumb,  inani- 
mate, resoundless  block,  distinct  musical  words  now  are  flowing.  The 
visitor  is  deeply  impressed  with  what  he  has  witnessed.  He  has  seen  the 
effect  of  constant,  assiduous,  philosophical  training.  He  looks  at  a  series 
of  portraits  of  the  children,  and  marks  how  rapid  have  been  the  changes. 
It  is  this  sense-education  which  has  taken  from  these  drear  faces  their  ani- 
mal look,  and  made  them  human  once  more.  Dr.  Seguin  it  is,  who, 
though  he  be  dead  now,  has  given  new  life  to  many  of  God's  creatures, 
and  it  is  his  wife  who  has  carried  out  his  work." 

P.  315,  §  413  (a.).  Rules  for  the  Care  of  the  Voice.— "'No  man 
who  is  conscious  of  the  ability  to  speak  effectively  can  undervalue  the 
power  of  a  pleasant  voice ;  and  no  hearer  of  a  melodious  voice  but  will 
acknowledge  its  influence.  We  have,  probably,  all  been  charmed  and  our 
attention  riveted  by  such  a  voice,  even  when  the  discourse  was  not  above 
commonplace.  The  converse  of  this  is,  alas,  more  often  met  with.  It 
is  a  fact  that  many  of  the  greatest  thinkers,  scholars,  and  writers  use 
in  public  speaking  and  reading,  a  heavy,  low  monotone,  or  they  rasp  the 
ear  with  a  high  and  strident  pitch.  Their  'thoughts  that  breathe,  and 
words  that  burn,'  fall  lifeless  and  cold,  nay,  even  weary,  and  repel  their 
listeners,  who  experience  a  sense  of  relief  when  the  inharmonious  voice 
ceases;'  the  speaker  also  being  thankful  that  his  painful  struggle  to  be 
heard  is  over.  How  much  the  influence  of  the  unfortunate  possessor  of 
such  a  voice  is  nullified !  If  a  statesman,  how  small  must  be  his  success 
in  directing  the  fortunes  of  a  nation !  If  a  clergyman,  painfully  will  he 
feel  that  his  earnest  endeavors  avail  him  nothmg.  If  a  barrister,  he  sees 
judge  and  juryman  sleeping,  and  to  the  detriment  of  his  client  he  may 
lose  his  carefully  prepared  case.  Yet,  in  almost  every  instance,  a  voice 
which  has  no  inherent  beauty  may,  by  correct  training,  become  attractive 
and  pleasant,  and  obtain  clearness,  smoothness,  and  commanding  reso- 
nance." 

"Rules.  1.  Never  endeavor  to  produce  a  vocal  tone  without  having  plenty 
of  breath,  and  that  thoroughly  under  control,  2.  Hold  the  breath  when 
^nspired,  and  commence  to  expire  only  on  commencing  to  speak  or  sing, 
that  is,  at  the  moment  it  is  required  to  set  the  ligaments  in  vibration. 
3.  Do  not  think  that  loudness  is  essential  to  force  or  beauty ;  shouting  is 
always  injurious.  The  telling  quality  of  laryngeal  tone  depends  solely  on 
the  amplitude  of  the  vibrations,  and  this  is  controlled  solely  and  entirely 


402  APPENDIX   NOTES. 

by  the  will,  which  directs  the  due  proportion  of  air  to  set  the  vocal  liga- 
ments into  more  or  less  full  vibration.  For  all  purposes  of  practice  it  is 
especially  advisable  for  the  pupil  to  sing  piano,  which  term  does  not  imply 
diminished  vigor,  but  simply  reduced  amplitude  of  the  vibrations. 
4.  Never  use  the  voice  when  functional  failure  gives  warning  that  the 
organ  or  the  general  health  is  disordered.  5.  Do  not  attempt  to  use  the 
voice  in  unfavorable  circumstances,  as  in  the  open  air,  especially  if  the 
weather  be  cold  or  raw,  nor  in  a  room  impregnated  with  tobacco  smoke, 
foul  air,  or  dust.  Above  all,  do  not  use  the  voice,  even  for  conversation, 
in  trains  or  vehicles,  or  in  any  circumstances  of  noise  which  will  require 
undue  functional  exertion.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  important  to  keep 
quiet  and  avoid  chattering  and  laughing  between  songs  or  the  acts  of  a 
drama  or  opera.  6.  Do  not  use  the  voice  for  too  long  a  period  at  a  time 
but  always  cease  before  fatigue  is  experienced.  Especially  avoid  encores  of 
songs,  which  have  required  much  exertion,  or  production  of  a  telling  high 
note  in  the  final  cadenza.  It  is  but  rarely  that  a  song  is  sung  as  well  on  a 
re-demand  as  at  first.  7.  After  continued  singing  or  speaking,  be  careful 
to  prevent  exposure  of  the  throat,  either  externally  or  internally,  to  the 
impressions  of  cold  air.  The  same  remark  applies  as  to  the  necessity  of 
guarding  against  sudden  changes  from  hot  to  cold  air,  even  when  the  voice 
has  not  been  used."  —  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech.    Browne. 


II^TDEX. 


IE"DEX. 


[beferences  are  to  pages.] 


A. 

Abdominal  cavity,  location  and   con- 
tents, 17. 

type  of  breathing,  187  N.  2. 
Abdomen,  Muscles  of,  19. 
Abductor  muscles,  27. 
Absorbents,  Chemical,  219. 
Absorption  of  food,  99. 

by  lacteals,  99. 

by  veins,  99. 

by  the  skin,  32  N.  1,  51. 

of  infectious  disease  by  clothing,  71 
N.  2. 
Accessory  digestive  organs,  85. 
Accommodation,  Power  of,  280. 

Value  of,  281. 
Achilles,  Tendon  of,  22. 
Acids  as  poisons,  344. 
Action  of  heart,  how  controlled,  159  N.  1. 
Active  tissues  of  the  body,  xi. 
Aero-Narcotic  poisons,  348. 
Adam's  apple,  306. 
Adductor  muscles,  27. 
Adipose  tissue,  30. 
Adulteration  of  food,  122. 
Afferent  nerves,  238  N.  1. 
Air,  Tidal,  190. 

Residual,  reserve,  and  complemental, 
192. 

quantity  breathed,  190. 

changes  in,  during  respiration,  193. 

of  country  and  city,  213. 

how  devitalized,  211. 

Impure,  its  dangers,  214. 

Purification  of,  214,  219. 
Air  cells  or  vesicles  of  the  lungs,  186, 
Air  passages  in  respiratory  apparatus, 

181-186. 
Albino,  Skin  of,  45. 

Eyes  of,  275. 
Albumen  in  food,  108. 

of  the  blood,  169. 
Album  inose,  97. 
Albuminoid  food  substances,  106,  108. 

Mode  of  preserving,  108. 
Alcoholic  drinks,  Classification  of,  146. 


Alcoholic  drink.  Action  of,  in  the  body, 
146. 

Use  of,  in  connection  with  the  preser- 
vation of  animal  heat,  147,  381. 

as  medicinal  agents,  147,  379. 

Effects  of  moderate  drinking  of,  380. 
Alcohol  as  a  poison.  Relief  from,  350. 
Alimentary  canal, —  location,  structure, 

and  secretions,  76. 
Alkalies  and  their  salts  as  poisons,  345. 
Amoeba,  171,  ix. 
Amoeboid  movements,  171,  ix. 
Amylaceous  compounds,  112  N.  1. 
Anatomy,  Definition  of,  vii. 
Animal  heat,  195. 

how  produced,  195. 

how  ascertained,  196. 

range  in  health  and  in  dieease,  196. 

how  modified,  196. 
Animal  matter  of  bones,  4. 

poisons,  347. 

foods,  128. 

Life,  functions  of,  225. 
Anti^ptics,  what  they  are,  and  when 

used,  218. 
Aorta,  The,  158. 
Aponeurosis,    or    fibrous    sheath    of 

muscles,  22  N.  2. 
Apoplexy,  231. 

Treatment  of,  330. 
Appendix  vermiformis,  85. 

notes,  351. 
Appetite,  118. 

Voracious,  119  N.  1. 
Aqueous  humor  of  eye,  278. 
Arachnoid  membrane, fluid  and  sac,  228. 
Arbor  vitae,  234  n.  1. 
Arches  of  Corti,  299. 
Arms,  Bones  of  the,  14. 
Arteries,  location  and  use,  160. 

structure  and  properties,  161. 
Arteries,  Pulsations  of,  162. 
Arterial  blood,  158. 
Arterioles,  161. 
Artesian  wells,  140  N.  2. 
Articulations.    See  Joints, 


406 


INDEX. 


Articular  cartilage,  8. 

surfaces  of  bone,  7. 
Artificial  respiration.   Methods  of  es- 
tablishing, 324-329. 

reflex  actions,  251. 

Ventilation,  215  n.  2. 
Arytenoid  cartilages,  306. 
Ascending  colon,  or  large  intestine,  85. 
Assimilation  by  cells,  xi. 

in  bones,  6. 

of  food,  100. 
Astigmatism,  286, 
Atlas,  The,  7. 
Atniosphere,  Thickness  of,  200. 

Pressure  of,  200. 

Composition  of,  200. 

Essential  ingredients  of,  201. 

other  ingredients,  202. 
Atropine.    See  Belladonna. 
Auditory  canal,  293. 
Auricle  of  the  ear,  293. 
Auricles  of  heart,  156. 
Auriculo-ventricular  openings  of  the 

heart,  156. 
Axis,  The,  7. 
Axis-cylinder  of  nerves,  225. 


Backbone,  The,  11  n.  4. 
Ball-and-socket  joints,  7. 
Base  of  the  heart,  153. 
Bathing,  Value  of,  54. 

kind  and  adaptability,  55. 

for  children  and  adults,  56. 

Effects  of,  57. 

Times  for,  58. 

in  hot  and  cold  water,  56. 
Baths,  Varieties  of,  59,  60. 

Adjuncts  of,  —  friction,  soap,  etc.,  60. 
Beans,  peas,  etc.,  137. 
Belladonna,  effect  on  pupil  of  eye,  276. 

Antidote  for,  as  poison,  350. 
Bicuspid  teeth,  88. 
Bile  and  its  uses,  94. 
Biliary  duct,  85. 
Binocular  vision,  283. 
Bioplasm,  ix  N.  2. 
Bladder,  The,  17  N.  1. 
Bleeding,  How  to  stop,  338. 
Blind  spot  of  the  eye,  277. 
Blood,  its  movements,  157,  158. 

Impure,  157. 

Pure,  158. 

its  use,  168. 
Blood,  Transfusion  of,  168. 

Composition  of,  168. 

microscopic  appearance,  168. 


Blood  globules,  their  structure,  appear- 
ance, and  use,  169,  170. 

its  coagulation,  171. 

Quantity  of,  173. 

Quality  of,  173. 

Changes  in,  during  respiration,  194. 

poisoning  through  the  skin,  175  n.  1. 
Blood-vessels,  160-166. 

of  bone,  5. 
Blushing,  Cause  of,  245. 
Body,  Tissues  of,  xii. 

Fluids  of,  xii. 
Boiling  of  food,  123. 
Bones,  object  and  number,  1. 

Form  and  uses  of,  1, 2. 

structure,  2,  3. 

composition,  4. 

nutrition,  5. 

Properties   of,  —  growth,  elasticity, 
strength,  4,  5. 

Repair  of,  334  n.  1. 

relations.  Fig.  1. 

of  the  feet,  14. 

of  the  extremities,  14. 

of  the  skull,  16. 

of  the  spinal  column,  11. 

Broken,  treatment  of,  333. 
Boots  and  Shoes,  65. 
Bowels,  83. 
Brain,  location  and  arrangement,  227. 

size  and  weight,  229. 

Faculties  of,  231. 
Bread,  135, 136. 
Breastbone,  2. 

Breathing  through  the  mouth,  182. 
Broiling  of  food,  123. 
Bronchial  tubes,  184. 
Bronchioles,  185. 
Bruises,  Treatment  of,  334. 
Bruise  spot,  172. 

Burns  and  scalds,  Treatment  of,  331. 
Butter,  133. 
Buttermilk,  132. 


C. 


Caffeine  of  coffee,  145. 

Caisson  disease,  to  what  due,  201  N.  2. 

Canals,  Haversian,  5  N.  3. 

Semicircular,  in  the  ears,  297. 
Canaliculi  of  bones,  5  n.  3. 
Cancellous  tissue  of  bone,  3. 
Candy,  The  use  of,  113  N.  2. 
Canine  teeth,  87. 
Capillaries,  location,  structure,  162. 

Circulation  in,  163. 

Lymphatic,  175. 
Carbonateof  lime,in  bonesand  teeth,115. 


INDEX. 


407 


Carbonic  acid,  in  the  atmosphere,  201, 
207. 

iu  the  expired  breath,  193. 

effects  when  breathed  in  large  amount, 
208. 
Carbo-hydrates,  106  n.  2. 
Carbonic  oxide,  209. 
Cardiac  opening  of  stomach,  81. 
Care  of  the  eyes.  Directions  for,  286. 

of  the  ears,  Directions  for,  301. 

and  culture  of  the  voice.  Directions  for, 
314,  401. 
Cartilage,  Articular,  8. 

of  eyelids,  271. 

of  trachea, 184. 

of  larynx,  306. 
Casein  in  f  od,  109. 
Catalytic  or  ferment  action,  95. 
Cataract,  279  N.  1. 
Catching  cold,  How  to  avoid,  62  N.  1. 
Cavities  of  the  skeleton,  15. 

of  the  heart,  155. 
Cells,  shape,  movements,  contents,  re- 
production, ix. 

Death  of,  x. 

Powers  of,  x. 

bow  connected,  xi. 

Nerve,  227. 
Cell  life,  ix,  x,  xi. 
Cellars'  foul  air,  211. 
Cereal  grains  as  food,  134. 
Cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  224. 
Cerebrum,  location,  227. 

structure,  229. 

Functions  of,  231. 

Location  of  faculties  in,  232. 
Cerebellum,  location,  227. 

structure  and  functions,  234. 
Cerebral  hemispheres,  230. 
Cerebration,  Unconscious,  251  N.2. 
Cervical  vertebrae,  11  N.  5. 

curve  of  spinal  column,  12. 
Cesspools,  Dangers  of,  211  N.  1. 
Chemical  processes,  viii. 
Cheese,  133. 

Chest,  Contents  of  cavity  of  the,  16. 
Chink  of  the  glottis,  307. 
Chloride  of  sodium.    See  Salt. 
Chloral  hydrate,  use  as  narcotic,  149. 

Antidotes  for,  351. 
Chlorine  as  a  disinfectant,  218. 
Chocolate,  145. 
Choke  damp,  208  n.  1. 
Choroid  coat  of  the  eye,  274. 
Chordae  tendinae  of  the  heart,  158  N.  3. 
Chyle,  84  N.  1,  98. 
Chyme,  97. 
Ciliae,  x,  182. 
Ciliated  cells  of  the  air  passages,  182. 


Ciliary  body  of  eye,  277. 

processes,  277. 

muscle,  277. 
Circulation,  Organs  of,  153. 

in  arteries,  161. 

in  capillaries,  163. 

in  veins,  167. 

Force  and  rapidity  of,  166,  167. 
Circulating  fluids,  their  value,  177. 
Circle  or  field  of  vision,  280. 
Clothing,  Objects  of,  62,  63. 

Proper  and  improper,  63-65. 

Quantity  of,  67,  68. 

qualities  necessary,  etc.,  69-72. 

unclean.  Dangers  of,  70. 

Bed,  70. 
Coagulation  of  blood,  171. 
Coats  or  tunics  of  the  eye,  273. 
Coccyx,  The,  13. 
Cochlea  of  the  ear,  297. 
Cocoa,  145. 
Coecum,  The,  85. 
Coffee,  144, 145. 

Colon,  The,  or  large  intestine,  85. 
Color  of  the  eye,  to  what  due,  276. 

of  the  blood,  170. 

in  dress,  71. 

blindness,  284. 
Coloring  matter  of  the  skin,  45. 
Cold  baths,  56. 
Column,  The  spinal,  11. 
Columns  of  spinal  cord,  236. 
Collar  bone  or  clavicle,  2. 
Combustion,  Spontaneous,  197  N.  1. 
Commissure,  230. 
Compact  tissue  (of  bone),  3. 
Complemental  air,  192. 
Condiments,  138. 

Consonant  sounds.  Production  of,  311. 
Conjunctiva,  271.  ^ 

Conjunctivitis,  271  N.  2. 
Connective  tissues,  xi. 
Constipation,  Treatment  of,  364. 
Contraction  of  the  heart,  158. 
Contusions,  Treatment  of,  335. 
Conversion  of  food  into  tissues,  95. 
Convolutions  of  brain,  230. 
Convulsions,  Treatment  of,  330. 
Cooking  and  preparation  of  food,  123. 
Coordination  of  movements,  234. 
Cords,  Vocal,  307. 
Cornea  of  the  eye,  273. 
Corpora  striata,  240  N.  2. 
Corpuscles  of  the  blood,  168. 
Corrosive  poisons,  344. 
Cotton  as  clothing,  72,  73. 
Cranium.    See  Skull. 
Cranial  nerves,  240. 

cavity,  location  and  contents,  16. 


408 


INDEX. 


Creatinine,  100. 
Cricoid  cartilage,  306. 
Crowd  poisoning,  206. 
Crystalline  lens,  278,  279. 
Cuticle,  The,  or  scarf  skin,  43. 

D. 
Dark  colored  clothing,  Use  of,  71. 
Death,  Local  and  general,  ix. 
Decomposed  meat.  Danger  of  eating, 

131. 
Decussate,  227. 

Decussation  of  optic  nerves,  282. 
Defects  in  vision,  283. 
Defective  hearing,  Causes  of,  300. 
Deglutition,  how  effected,  96. 
Dental  pulp,  87. 
Dentine,  86. 
Dentition,  89. 
Deodorizers,  218. 

Descending  colon  or  large  intestine,  85. 
Dermis,  The,  43. 
Development,  definition,  viii. 
Devitalized  air  in  dwellings,  211. 
Dextrine,  95. 
Diaphragm,  location,  16. 

importance  in  breathing,  189. 

importance  in  production  of  voice,  314. 
Diapedesis,  Description  of,  171. 
Diastole  of  the  heart,  158  N.  3. 
Dietaries,  119. 
Dietetics,  119-124. 
Digestion,  Organs  of,  in  general,  76. 

organs  of,  Accessory,  85. 

healthy,  Requirements  of,  95-101. 
Disease  germs,  204. 
Disinfectants,  218. 
Dislocation,  Definition  of,  9. 

Reduction  of,  333. 
Drinks,  139. 
Drinking  water,  140-144. 
Drowning,  What  to  do  in  cases  of,  324- 

329. 
Drum  of  the  ear,  294. 
Duct,  Nasal,  272. 

Biliary,  85. 

Thoracic,  85. 

Pancreatic,  85. 

Salivary,  93, 
Dura  mater,  228. 
Dust  in  the  air,  203. 
Dyes,  Poisonous,  in  clothing,  71. 
Dyspepsia,  Relief  from,  101  n.  2. 

E. 

Ear,  location  and  structure,  293. 
External,  293. 
Middle,  295. 


Ear,  Internal,  297. 
Bones  of,  296. 
wax,  294. 
speculum,  294. 
Glands  of,  294. 
Proper  care  of,  301. 
Efferent  nerves,  238  n.  1. 
Eggs,  133. 

Emergencies,  general  directions,  321- 
324. 

special  directions  for  cases  of  injury, 
drowning,  and  poisoning,  324. 
Emmetropic  or  normal  eye,  284. 
Emulsion,  30  n.  1. 
Enamel  of  the  teeth,  86. 
Endocardium,  155. 
Endosmosis,  xi,  99. 
Endosteum,  4. 
Epidermis,  location  and  structure,  44. 

Uses  of,  45. 
Epiglottis,  The,  306. 
Epithelial  cells,  78  n.  1. 
Epithelium,  78  n.  1. 
Error  in  refraction,  285. 
Essential  organs  of  the  voice,  305. 
Excretion,  Definition  of,  x. 
Exercise.    See  Muscular  exercise. 
Exosmosis,  xi. 

Expiration,  Movements  of,  188. 
Expired  air,  Dangers  from,  193. 
Extensor  muscles,  27. 
Extremities,  Bones  of  the,  14. 
Eucalyptus  tree  and  sunflower.  Value 

of,  in  drying  the  soil,  206  K.  1. 
Eustachian  tube,  location,  79. 

use,  297. 
Eye,  its  use,  270. 

its  structure,  273. 

Coats  of,  273. 

Humors  of,  278. 

Proper  care  of,  286. 
Eyeball,  270-273. 
Eyebrows,  270. 
Eyelashes,  Uses  of,  270. 
Eyelids,  270. 


Facial  nerves,  241. 
Fainting  fits.    See  Sjrncope. 

Fat  of  the  body,  its  location  and  struc- 
ture, 30. 

Uses  of,  31. 

amount,  31. 

How  to  increase  or  diminish,  32. 

as  food,  sources,  digestibility,  110,  111. 
Ferment,  Definition  of,  95. 
Fibrin  as  a  constituent  of  food,  108. 
Fibrinogen,  172  n.  1. 
Fibrons  tissue,  zii. 


INDEX. 


409 


Fibres  and  fibrillae  of  muscles,  24. 

Nerve,  225. 
Field  of  vision,  280. 
Fifth  pair  of  nerves,  241. 
Filtration,  144. 
Filters,  144  N.  2. 
Fits,  Convulsive,  330. 

Fainting,  330. 
Fire  damp,  210. 
Fire-places,  216  N.  2. 
First  teeth,  87. 
Fish  as  food,  130. 

as  brain  food,  130  N.  2. 
Flesh  as  food,  128, 129. 
Flexor  muscles,  27. 
Flour,  134, 135. 
Fluids  of  the  body,  xii. 
Focus  of  the  rays  of  light,  279. 
Food,  Definition  of,  104. 

Positive  and  negative,  104. 

Sources  of,  104. 

Classification  of,  105. 

Albuminoid  constituents  of,  in  general, 
106. 

Albuminoid  constituents  of  animal,  108. 

Albuminoid  constituents  of  vegetable, 
108. 

constituents,  Non-nitrogenous,  109. 

constituents.  Inorganic,  113. 

vegetable  acids,  116. 

Quantity  of,  necessary,  on  what  it  de- 
pends, 116. 

daily  amount  requisite,  119. 

Selection  and  preparation  of,  120. 

Adulteration  of,  122. 

proper  preparation,  preservation,  and 
cooking,  123, 124. 
Foods,  Classification  of,  128. 

Animal,  128. 

Vegetable,  134. 

fruits,  138. 

Cereal  grains,  134. 

condiments,  138. 

drinks,  139. 
Foreigrn  bodies  in  the  eye,  nose,  ears, 

and  throat.  Removal  of,  339,  340. 
Fractures  and  dislocations,  333. 
Freckles,  Cause  of,  45. 
Frost  bite.  Treatment  of,  332. 
Fruit  as  food,  138. 
Frying  food,  Proper  method  of,  124. 
Function,  ^ii. 

of  accommodation,  277. 


G. 


Gail-Bladder,  94. 

Game  as  food,  129. 
Ganglia,  227. 


Ganglionic    system    of    nerves.      See 

Sympathetic  system. 
Gaseous  diffusion  in  the  atmosphere,  207. 

diflfusion  in  the  lungs,  191. 
Gastric  or  stomach  digestion,  96. 

juice,  82. 
Gases  in  the  atmosphere,  206. 

as  poisons,  347. 
Gelatine  as  an  element  of  food,  109. 
Germ  theory  of  infection,  204. 
Glands,  Sweat,  45-47. 

Sebaceous,  47. 

Salivary,  92,  93. 
Globules,  Blood,  168. 

Lymph,  173. 
Glosso-pharyngeal  nerve,  264. 
Glottis,  184. 
Glucose,  94,  95,  98. 
Gluten  as  an  element  of  food,  109. 
Glycogen,  94. 
Gray  matter  of  the  nervous  system,  225- 

227. 
Gullet,  80.    See  Oesophagus. 
Gum  as  food,  112. 
Gums,  The,  86. 
Gustatory  nerve,  263. 
Gymnasium,  39. 


H. 

Hairs,  location,  structure,  uses,  48,  49. 
Hand,  The  adaptation  of,  for  general 
use,  14. 

The  adaptation  of,  for  exercising  the 
sense  of  touch,  261. 
Haversian  canals,  5  n.  3. 
Hay  fever.  Production  of,  267  N.  1. 
Head,  Movements  of,  how  effected,  7. 
Hearing,  how  effected,  292. 

Organs  of,  293. 

Physiology  of,  299,  300. 

Defective,  300. 
Heart,  location  and  relations,  153. 

coverings  and  lining,  155. 

structure,  155. 

Valves  of,  156. 

Pulsations  of,  158. 

Circulation  through,  157. 

Sounds  of,  158. 
Heat,  Animal,  195. 
Heat  exhaustion.  Treatment  of,  330. 
Hemiplegia,  237  N.  2. 
Hemispheres  of  brain,  230. 
Hemoglobine  of  the  blood,  170. 
Hemorrhage,  Treatment  of,  338. 
Hepatic  veins,  99 ;  Fig.  45. 
Hinge  joints,  7. 
Hippophagy,  129  K. 


410 


INDEX. 


Histology,  vii  n.  1. 
Hot  baths,  56. 
Humors  of  the  eye,  278. 
Humerus,  2. 
Hunger,  Cause  of,  viii. 
Hydro-carbons,  106  n.  2. 
Hygiene,  Definition  of,  vii.  n. 
Hypermetropia,  285. 


Heo-coecal  valve,  83. 
Illuminating  gas,  210. 
Iniibibition,  Definition  of,  xi. 
Immovable  joints,  G. 
Impurities  in  the  air,  Efiiects  of,  213. 

in  water,  Effects  of,  140. 
Incisor  teeth,  87. 
Incus,  The,  296. 
Inferior  costal  type  of  breathing,  187 

N.  2. 
Inunction,  Value  of,  60. 
Inorganic  food  constituents,  113. 
Insalivation,  95. 
Insensible  perspiration,  47. 
Insensibility,  322. 
Inspiration,  186. 

Intensity  of  sound,  to  what  due,  310. 
Inter-costal  muscles,  187  N.  1. 
Intestines  or  bowels,  83. 

Small,  83. 

Large,  85. 
Intestinal  juice,  85. 

digestion,  98. 

villi,  84. 
Intoxication,  Relief  of,  329. 
Involuntary  muscles,  22. 
Iris,  The,  275. 
Iron,  as  constituent  of  food  and  of  the 

body,  116. 
Irritability,  Property  of,  its  uses,  223. 
Irritant  poisons,  344. 


Joints,  Varieties,  6. 

Uses  and  structure,  7,  8. 
Juice,  Gastric,  82. 

Intestinal,  85. 

Pancreatic,  94. 

K. 

Kidneys,  Location,  17;   Fig.  15. 
use  in  connection  with  the  skin,  52. 


Labyrinth,  Bony,  of  the  ear,  297. 

Membraneous,  298. 
Lacteals,  84.    See  I^ymphatics. 


liaclirymal  or  tear  sacs,  272. 

glands,  272. 
canals,  272. 
secretion,  272. 
liacunae  in  bones,  5  k.  3. 
liaryngoscope.  The,  309  K.  1. 
Larynx,  The,  location,  79. 
use  in  respiration,  184. 
use  in  voice,  305. 
licad  poisoning,  346. 

pipes.  Objections  to,  for  conveyance  of 
drinking  water,  141. 
liCgumine  in  food,  109. 
L,ens,  Crystalline,  278. 
Lrcvicocytes  or  white  corpuscles,  171 N.  1. 
Ligaments,  8. 

Ligaturing  of  the  blood-vessels,  172. 
Light,  Value  of,  to  health,  219. 

colored    clothing,   Use    of,    in    warm 
weather,  71. 
Limbs,  The.    See  Extremities. 
Lime  as  constituent  of  food,  115, 116. 

juice,  Value  of,  121. 
Linen  as  clothing,  72,  73. 
Liquor  sanguinis,  168. 
Liver,  The,  location  and  functions,  94. 
Long  sight,  285. 

Loose  clothing.  Importance  of,  63. 
Lungs,  their  shape  and  location,  180. 
Free  movements  of,  how  provided  for, 

180, 181. 
structure,  181. 
Lobules  of,  184. 
Air  vesicles  of,  186. 
Lymph,  99,  173. 

globules,  173. 
Lymphatic  glands,  176. 

capillaries,  175. 
Lymphatics,  The,  174. 
of  bones,  6  N.  1. 
of  the  skin,  51. 

M. 

Malaria,  what  it  is,  206. 

Malleus,  The,  296. 

Malt  liquors,  147. 

3Iarrow  of  bones,  3. 

Marsh  gas,  209. 

Mastication,  95. 

Mastoid  cells,  296. 

Meat,  128. 

Mechanical  processes,  vift 

Media  of  the  eye,  278. 

Median  line  of  the  body,  154  N. 

Medulla  oblongata,  Location  of,  227. 

arrangement  and  function,  234. 
Medullary    canal    and    membrane    of 
bones,  4. 


INDEX. 


411 


Membranes  of  brain,  228. 
Membrana  tympani,  294-296. 
Membraneous  labyrinth,  298. 
Memory,  231. 
Meninges  of  the  brain,  228. 
Meibomian  glands,  location,  structure, 

and  function,  271. 
Mesentery,  The,  83. 
Metallic  substances  as  poisons,  345. 
Middle  ear,  295. 

Migration  of  white  blood  globules,  171. 
Milk  as  food,  131,  132. 
Milk  teeth,  87. 
Mind,  The  organ  of  the,  231. 
Mineral  baths,  59. 

matter  of  bones,  4. 
Mitral  valve  of  the  heart,  156  N.  3. 
Mixed  joints,  6. 
Model  tenements,  213. 
Modulation  of  voice.  Parts  concerned 

in,  305. 
Molar  teeth,  87. 
Motion,  Production  of,  240. 
Motor  roots  and  nerves,  238. 
Mouth,  The,  and  its  appendages,  78. 

breathing,  Dangers  of,  182. 
Movable  joints,  6. 
Mucus,  78. 

Mucous  membrane,  77. 
Mud  baths,  60. 
Muscles,  number  and  uses,  19. 

shape  and  arrangement,  19. 

Classification  of,  19. 

relations  and  mode  of  attachment,  22. 

structure,  23. 

blood  and  nerve  supply,  25. 

composition,  25. 

functions,  26. 

Contractility  of,  26. 

Groups,  names,  and  actions  of,  27. 

Opposing  or  antagonistic,  28. 

of  expression,  28. 

Development  of,  29. 
Muscle  fibres,  23,  24. 
Muscular  exercise,  34. 

Proper,  34. 

Uses  of,  35. 

Improper,  36. 

modified  by  age,  37. 

modified  by  sex,  37. 

modified  by  time  of  day,  38. 

Forms  of,  39. 

in  gymnasium,  39. 

Passive,  40. 
Muscular  contraction,  26. 

sense,  The,  258. 
Mushrooms,  poisonous  and  edible  varie 
ties,  348. 

How  to  distinguish,  348. 


Musical  sounds  of  the  voice,  to  what 
due,  310. 
how  heard,  299. 
Myopia,  285. 

N. 
Nails,  the  structure  and  use,  49. 
Narcotics,  149. 
Narcotic  poisons,  350. 
Nasal  cavities.  Nerves  of,  etc.,  266. 

ducts.  The,  272. 

fossae,  266. 

twang,  what  it  is  and  how  caused,  311. 
Natural  ventilation,  215  N.  2. 
Nerve  cells,  227. 

fibres,  225. 

filaments,  225. 
Nerve  force,  character,  and  rapidity  of, 
247. 

Quantity  of,  253. 

Transference  of,  248. 

Perversion  of,    by  worry,  overwork, 
etc.,  253. 
Nerves,  structure,  226. 

function,  227. 

Decussation  of,  227. 

of  the  skin,  44. 

of  sight,  282. 

of  smell,  266. 

of  taste,  263. 

Cranial,  240. 

Fifth  pair  of,  241. 

Seventh  pair  of,  or  facial,  241. 

Tenth  pair  of,  or  pneumagastric,  242. 

Spinal,  237. 
Nervous  actions,  in  general,  248. 

Reflex,  249. 

of  cerebro-spinal  nerves  in  conjunction 
with  sympathetic  nerves,  249. 

of  sympathetic  system,  250. 

of  spinal  cord,  250. 

Artificial,  251. 

Value  of,  252. 

Direct,  248. 

Special,  248. 
Nervous  energy,  253. 
Nervous  matter,  in  general,  225. 

White,  225. 

Gray,  227. 
Nervous  system,  functions,  223. 

Cerebro-spinal,  224. 

general    arrangement    and    structure, 
224. 

sympathetic  or  ganglionic,  243. 

Development  of,  254. 
Neuralgia,  241  n  3. 
Neurilemma,  Tne,  226. 
Nitrogen  of  the  air,  202. 
Nitrogenous  food  constituents,  105. 


412 


INDEX. 


Non-nitrogenous     food    constituents, 

109. 
Normal  digestion,  100. 
Nose  and  its  cavities,  266. 

Breathing  through  the,  183  N.  2. 
Nostrils  as  channels  of  respiration,  181. 
Nutritious,  The  use  of  the  term,  107  N.  1, 

128  N.  2. 
Nutritive  processes,  177. 
Nvits  as  food,  138. 


O. 

Ochlesis,  Definition  and  dangers  of,  206. 
Oesophagus,  The,  80. 
Old  sight,  what  it  is,  286. 
Oleaginous  group  of  food  substances, 

112  N.  1. 
Olfactory  nerve,  266. 

bulb,  266. 
Openings  of  the  heart,  156 

of  the  stomach,  81. 
Opium,  its  use  and  abuse,  149. 
Opthalmascope,  its  use,  283. 
Optic  nerve,  location,  274. 

Conveyance  of  impressions  of  light  by, 
282. 

tubercles,  282. 

thalami,  240  n.  2. 
Orbits,  270. 
Orbital  cavity,  270. 
Organ,  Definition  of,  xi. 
Organs  of  taste,  263. 

of  respiration,  180. 

of  circulation,  153. 
Organs  of  sight,  270. 

of  hearing,  293. 

of  voice,  etc.,  305. 
Organic  food  substances,  105. 
Organic  matter,  Exhaled,  205. 

in  drinking  water,  how  detected,  143  N.l. 
Osmosis,  Definition  of,  xi. 
Ossicles  or  bones  of  the  ear,  296. 
Outline  of  study,  xi. 
Oval  opening  or  window  of  internal  ear, 

298. 
Oysters,  130,  373. 
Oxygen  of  the  air,  202. 
Ozone  of  the  air,  202. 


Pain,  Value  of,  etc.,  259. 

Palate,  hard  and  soft,  Composition  of, 

78. 
Paleness,  Cause  of,  245. 
Pancreas,  Location  and  function  of,  94. 
Pancreatic  juice,  94,  98. 
Pancreatine,  98  n.  2. 


Papillae  of  the  skin,  43. 

of  the  tongue,  263. 
Paralysis,  Cause  of,  231. 
Paraplegia,  237  n.  2. 
Parasite  poisoning,  131  n. 
Parotid  glands,  location  and  function, 

92. 
Patella  or  knee-pan,  1  n.  1. 
Peas,  137. 

Pelvic  cavity,  Contents  of,  17. 
Pelvis,  The,  13. 
Pepsine,  97. 
Peptone,  97  n.  1. 
Pericardium,  155. 
Periosteum,  2. 
Peristaltic  motion,  80. 
Peritoneum,  83  n.  4. 
Permanent  or  second  set  of  teeth,  87. 

time  of  appearance,  89  N.  1;  Fig.  41. 
Perspiration,  46,  47. 
Perspiratory  glands.  SeeSweatglands. 
Pliarynx,  78. 

as  an  air  passage,  184. 
Phosphorus,  116. 
Phosphate  of  lime  in  bones,  teeth,  etc., 

115. 
Physiology,  Definition  of,  vii. 
Physical  culture,  34. 
Pia  mater,  229. 
Pitch  of  sounds,  to  what  due,  292. 

of  voice,  to  what  due,  310. 
Pivot  joint,  7. 
Plasma,  168. 
Plastic,  Tissue-making  or  flesh-forming, 

107  N.l. 
Pleura,  180  n,  1. 
Pleural  cavity,  180. 
Pleurisy,  181  n.  2. 
Plexus  of  nerves,  243. 
Pneumogastric  nerve,  242. 
Poisons,  Definition  of,  and  general  di- 
rections as  to  relief  from,  340-344. 

Individual,  344. 
Pork  as  food,  129. 
Portal  vein,  84. 
Posterioi'  nares,  79. 
Potatoes,  130. 
Poultry  as  food,  129. 
Power  of  accommodatipn,  The,  280. 
Presbyopia,  286. 
Processes,  Chemical,  viii. 

Mechanical,  viii. 

Vital,  viii. 

Nutritive,  177. 

Voluntary,  225. 

Involuntarj',  225. 
Proper  bathing.  Results  of,  58. 
Proteids,  106  n.  1. 
Protoplasm,  Properties  of,  ix. 


INDEX. 


413 


Ptyalin  of  the  Baliva,  95. 
Pulmonary  artery,  157. 

veins,  158. 

vesicles,  186. 
Pulp  of  the  tooth,  87. 

cavity,  87. 
Pulse,  The,  158  N.  2, 162. 
Pupil,  The,  of  the  eye,  275. 
Pure  blood,  158. 
Purification  of  air,  214. 

of  water,  144, 
Putrefaction  of  food,  causes  and  pre- 
vention of,  etc.,  108.  • 
Pyloric  opening  of  stomach,  81. 
Pylorus,  The,  81. 

0. 

Quality  of  vocal  sounds,  311. 

how  improved,  312. 
Quarantining,  Use  of,  205. 

K. 
Bain  water,  139. 
Beach  of  the  voice,  312. 
Bttaction  after  bathing,  58, 
Beceptaculum  chyli,  85. 
Bectum,  The,  Fig.  32. 
Bed  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  169. 
Beilex  action,  in  general,  249. 

of  cerebro-spinal  nerves  in  conjunction 
with  sympathetic  nerves,  250. 

of  sympathetic  system,  250. 

through  spinal  cord,  250. 

Artificial,  252. 
Befrigerator,  connection  with  sewer, 

211  N.  1. 
Begulation  of  temperature,  197. 
Bepair  of  broken  bones,  334  N.  1. 
Besidual  air  of  the  lungs,  191. 
Bespiration,  Objects  of,  180. 

Organs  of,  180. 

Process  of,  186. 

Types  of,  187. 

how  effected,  188. 

Movements  of,  189. 

Renovation  of  air  in,  191. 

Changes  in  the  air  during,  193. 

Changes  in  the  blood  during,  194. 
Bespirators,  Use  of,  204  N,  1. 
Betina,  277, 
Bibs,  The,  13. 
Bickets,  what  due  to,  5. 
Boasting,  123. 

Bods  and  cones  of  the  retina,  277  N.  2. 
Botator  muscles,  27. 
Bound  window  of  the  eye,  298, 
Bussian  baths,  59, 
Bye,  134. 


S. 

Saccharine  group  of  food  substances, 

112  N.  1. 
Saccrum,  The,  13. 
Saliva,  78,  93. 
Salivary  glands,  92. 
Salt,  115. 

Salt-water  bathing,  59. 
Sarcolemma,  23. 
Savory  herbs,  use  as  condiments,  139. 
Scalds  and  burns.  Treatment  of,  331. 
Scapula  or  shoulder  blade,  2;  Fig.  1. 
Scarf-skin,  43. 
Sciatica,  226  N.  2, 
Sclerotic  coat  of  the  eye,  273. 
Scurvy,  Causes  of,  121. 

Condition  of  blood  in,  172. 

Use  of  salad  vegetables  as  preventive 
of,  137. 

Use  of  raw  meat  as  preventive  of,  369. 

Use  of  Time  juice  as  preventive  of,  121. 
Sebaceous  glands,  47. 
Secretion,  Definition  of,  8  N.  2. 
Semicircular  canals,  297. 

Function  of,  299. 
Semilunar  valves  of  the  heart,  156  N.  3. 
Sense  of  touch,  261. 

of  taste,  262. 

of  smell,  265. 

of  sight,  270. 

of  hearing,  292. 
Sensation  of  weight,  resistance,   etc., 
258. 

of  pain,  259. 
Sensations,  common,  257. 

how  conveyed  and  perceived,  238. 

special  or  the  senses,  257. 
Sensible  perspiration,  47. 
Sensory  impressions,  238. 

roots  and  nerves,  238. 
Septic  poisons,  348. 
Septvim  of  the  nose,  266. 
Serous  membrane,  83. 
Serum,  83  N.  3,  155. 
Sesamoid  bones,  1  N.  1. 
Seventh  pair  of  nerves,  241. 
Sewer  gas.  Composition  of,  and  dangers 

from,  210. 
Shallow  breathing.  Dangers  of,  191  K.  1. 
Shoes,  proper  and  improper,  65-67. 
Sight,  Organs  of,  270, 
Silk  as  a  material  of  clothing,  72,  73. 
Sinews,  22. 

Skeletal  muscles.  The,  19  N.  2. 
Skeleton,  Cavities  of  the,  15. 
Skim  milk,  132. 
Skin,  The,  structure  and  properties  of, 


414 


INDEX. 


Skin,  Appendages  of,  45. 

Functions  of,  50-52. 

Relation  of,  to  other  organs,  52. 

Care  of,  Chaps.  VI.,  VII. 
Skull,  The,  its  location,  attachments,  etc., 

7,16. 
Sleep,  amount  and  use,  30,  354. 
Smell,  Organs  of,  266. 

Acuteness  of,  265-267. 

Development  of,  267. 
Soap,  Kinds  and  value  of,  60.     . 
Soft  palate,  78. 

water,  143. 
Solaria  or  sun  rooms,  60  n.  2. 
Sound,  Production  of,  309. 
Sounds,  consonant  and  vowel,  Produc- 
tion of,  311. 
Special  sensations,  257. 
Speech,  304. 

Spinal  column.  Use,  form,  and  number 
of  bones  in,  11, 

curvature,  how  produced,  13  N.  1. 

cord,  location,  228. 

structure  and  uses,  236. 

nerves,  237. 
Spirometer  or  lung  tester,  192. 
Spleen,  The,  location  and  function  of,  85. 
Sprains,  Treatment  of,  334. 
Spongy  tissue  of  bone,  3. 
Spontaneous  combustion,  197  n.  1. 
Stapes,  The,  296. 
Starch  as  an  element  of  food,  111,  112. 

Digestion  of,  95. 

Substances  allied  to,  112. 
Sternum,  The,  or  breastbone,  2. 
Stewing,  123. 

Stomach,  structure,  location,  capacity, 
80. 

digestion  in,  96. 
Stove  gas.  Causes  and  effects  of,  209. 
Striated  muscles,  24. 
Sublingual  glands,  The,  93. 
Submaxillary  glands.  The,  92. 
Suffocation,  What  to  do  in  cases  of, 

324-329. 
Sugar  as  food,  113. 

in  candy,  113  N.  2. 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  210. 
Sun  baths,  their  value,  60. 

stroke,  "What  to  do  in  cases  of,  330. 
Superior  costal  breathing,  187  N.  2. 
Supra-arytenoid  cartilages,  306. 
Suspended  matters  in  the  air,  203. 
Suture  joints,  6. 

Swallowing.     See  Deglutition. 
Sweat  glands,  45,  46. 
Sweet-bread.     See  Pancreas. 
Sympathetic  system  of  nerves,  location 
and  structure,  243. 


Sympathetic  system  of  nerve,  Function 

of,  245. 
Syncope,  Treatment  of,  330. 
Synovial  membrane,  8. 

fluid,  8. 
Systole  of  the  heart,  158  N.  3. 


Tactile,  corpuscles,  44. 

sensation,  257. 
Tactus  eruditus,  its  value,  262. 
Taste,  Organs  of,  263. 

how  affected,  262,  263. 

how  influenced,  265. 
Tea  as  food,  144. 
Tears,  origin  and  use,  272. 
Teeth,  uses  and  structure,  86. 

location,  names,  number,  87. 

Care  of,  91. 
Temperature  of  the  body,  195. 
Temporary  or  first  set  of  teeth,  87. 

time  of  appearance.  Fig.  41. 
Tendons,  structure,  location,  and  use,  22. 
Tendon  of  Achilles,  22. 
Tensor  tympani  muscle,  297. 
Tenth  pair  of  nerves.     See  Pneumo- 

gastric  nerve. 
Tepid  baths,  56. 
Test  types.  Samples  of,  281  N.;  284  n.  2; 

399. 
Test  of  tight  chest  clothing,  64  N. 
Thein  of  tea,  145. 
Theobromine,  145. 
Thermometer,  medical  or  clinical,  The 

use  of,  196  N.  2. 
Thoracic  cavity,  16. 

duct,  85,  175. 
Thymus  gland,  177  N.  1. 
Thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx,  306. 
Tight  boots  and  shoes,  67. 

clothing,  Efl'ects  of,  64. 
Tissue,  Cancellous  or  spongy,  of  bone,  3. 

Compact,  3. 

Sub-cutaneous,  44. 

Connective,  what  it  is,  xi. 

Connective,  of  skin,  44. 
Tissues,  Definition  of,  xi. 

Classification  of,  xi. 

List  of,  in  the  body,  xii. 
Tobacco,  its  effects,  148. 
Tongue,  Nerves  of,  263. 

papillae,  etc.,  263. 
Tonsils,  183;  Fig.  33, 
Tooth  bone  or  ivory,  86. 
Touch,  Organs  of,  261. 

Delicacy  of,  262. 
Trachea,  The,  184. 
Transfusion  of  blood.  168. 


INDEX. 


415 


Transverse  colon,  85. 

Trichinae,  122. 

Tricuspid  valves,  156  n.  3. 

Trunk,  11  n.  3. 

Tunics  of  the  eye,  273. 

Turbinated  bones  of  the  nose,  182  n.  1. 

Turkish  baths,  when  to  be  used,  59. 

Tympanum,  Cavity    of,    location    and 

contents,  295. 
Types  of  breathing,  187  N.  2. 


Ulna  bone.  The,  2. 
Unconsciousness,  Causes  of,  322. 
Unwholesome  food,  122, 131. 
Urea,  100. 

V. 

Valve,  Ileo-coecal,  83. 
Valves  of  the  heart,  156. 

of  veins,  166. 
Valvulae  conniventes,  number,  location, 

structure,  and  use,  84. 
Vascular,  2. 
Vasa  vasorum,  160  n.  3. 
Vaso-motor  nerves,  243  N.  1. 
Vegetable  acids,  116. 

foods,  134. 

poisons,  347. 
Vegetables,  136. 
Veins,  use,  structure,  165. 

Flow  of  blood  through,  167. 

Pulmonary,  158. 
Venae  cavae,  157  N.  1. 
Venous  system.  Capacity  of,  166. 

or  impure  blood,  157. 
Ventilation,  in  general,  214,  215. 

Amount  of  cubic  space  needed  in,  217. 

Natural  and  artificial,  215  n.  2. 
Ventilators,  215. 
Ventricles  of  heart,  156. 

of  larynx,  307. 

of  brain,  230  n.  3. 
Ventriloquism,  how  produced,  312. 
Vermicular  motion.    See  Peristaltic 

motion. 
Vermiform  appendix,  85. 
Vertebrae,  location,  number,  use,  12. 
Vertebral  column.  See  Spinal  column. 
Vestibule  of  the  ear,  297. 


Vibrations  of  sound  waves,  292. 
Villi,  The,  of  the  intestines,  84. 
Viscera,  17  N.  1. 
Vision,  how  effected,  279,  280. 

Organs  of,  270. 

Binocular,  283. 

Defects  in,  283. 
Vital  capacity,  192. 

processes  in  the  body,  viii,  ix. 

knots,  235. 
Vitreous  humor  of  the  eye,  278. 
Vocal  cords  or  bands,  location,  307. 

function,  307. 

sound,  variations  in,  310. 
Voice,  The,  304. 

Parts  concerned  in  production  of,  305. 

Mechanism  of,  309. 

Production  of,  305. 

Range  or  compass  of,  312. 

Varieties  of,  313. 

Quality  of,  311. 

Reach  of,  312. 

Care  and  culture  of,  314,  401. 
Voluntary  muscles,  19. 
Voracious  appetite,  119  n.  1. 
Vowel  sounds,  Production  of,  311. 

W. 

Warmth,  of  the  body.     See  Animal 

heat. 
Waste-water  pipes,  211  n.  1. 
Water  as  a  food  constituent,  113, 114. 

as  a  food,  139. 

Kinds,  how  conveyed,  141. 

Purification  of  drinking,  144. 

exhaled  with  the  breath,  193. 

Proportion  of,  in  blood,  fluids,  and  tis- 
sues, 114. 
Watery  vapor  in  breath,  193. 
TVell-water,  140. 
White  matter  of  the  nervous  system,  225. 

corpuscles  of  the  blood,  170. 
Windpipe,  The.    See  Trachea. 
Wisdom  teeth,  89. 
Woollen  clothing,  72. 
"Wormian  bones,  1  n.  1. 
TVounds,  Treatment  of,  335-338. 

Y. 

Yellow  spot,  The,  of  the  eye,  277. 


Iras  of 
Boston. 


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